Neurotechnologies, while still emerging, are advancing rapidly and gaining prominence. These technologies have a clear dual-use nature: in addition to civilian applications, military research laboratories are actively exploring ways to enhance soldiers’ cognitive, sensory and physical capabilities, including through direct brain-machine interfaces with uncrewed systems. The potential military use of neurotechnologies raises significant security concerns and could affect the conduct of warfare, presenting complex disarmament, ethical and legal challenges.

The Innovations Dialogue 2025, building on existing international efforts, sought to provide a neutral space to address this topic through the lens of arms control, disarmament and international security. It did so by examining the current state of neurotechnologies, considering associated risks and opportunities for international peace and security, and exploring pathways towards responsible governance.

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Citation: Federico Mantellassi and Edward Madziwa, Neurotechnology in the Military Domain: A Primer (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2025)

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To address this knowledge gap, UNIDIR’s annual Compendium on Enabling Technologies and International Security focuses on identifying and analysing key advancements in enabling technologies, with a particular emphasis on those still in their early stages of development or application. This 2024 edition builds upon the 2023 compendium, providing an update on the latest developments in enabling technologies as they relate to international peace and security. While this edition addresses technological developments and applications specific to 2024, the 2023 compendium remains an essential resource for more detailed foundational analyses. 

The compendium categorises enabling technologies into four areas: 

• Category I: advanced materials, including semiconductors, superconductors and nanotechnology; 

• Category II: parts and components, such as microchips and sensors; 

• Category III: processing and computing, covering cloud, edge and quantum computing; and 

• Category IV: connectivity infrastructure, spanning fifth- and sixth-generation telecommunications (5G and 6G), the Internet of Things and satellite communications. 

Funded by

Citation: He, Wenting. “Enabling Technologies and International Security: A Compendium (2024 edition)”, Geneva, Switzerland: UNIDIR, 2024.

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The dialogue featured multidisciplinary discussions on quantum computing, communications and sensing, focusing on equitable access, capacity building, and the role of multilateral frameworks. Key themes included bridging the “quantum divide,” fostering collaboration across sectors and integrating quantum advancements with Sustainable Development Goals.  

The 2024 Innovations Dialogue emphasized fostering inclusive, collaborative and forward-thinking approaches to quantum governance. By uniting global stakeholders and leveraging innovative ideas, the conference explored possible pathways to responsibly harness quantum technologies’ transformative power. It laid the groundwork for future multilateral discussions to shape secure, equitable and innovative quantum advancements.

This report is not intended to be a detailed account of the conference proceedings but rather an easily accessible reference point. For more information, watch the full conference recording.

Citation: Dongyoun Cho, 2024 Innovations Dialogue: Quantum Technologies and Their Implications for International Peace and Security, Conference Summary Report, Geneva, UNIDIR, 2024.

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The centrality of cloud computing to modern life and the concentration of services among a few actors mean that failures – either accidental or as the result of adversarial action – can be severe, with cascading effects across industries, services and states. To understand the profound impacts of this critical enabling technology on international security, this report provides an overview of relevant use cases, benefits and risks of cloud computing, as well as its key governance challenges and implications for arms control. Structured into two parts – a technology primer and a governance primer – this report offers both technical insights and policy analysis.

Citation

Brief – Federico Mantellassi and Giacomo Persi Paoli, Cloud Computing Governance: a Research Brief (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2024).

Full report – Federico Mantellassi and Giacomo Persi Paoli, Cloud Computing and International Security: Risks, Opportunities and Governance Challenges (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2024).

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• First, the development of AI technologies has – at least in part – depended on the availability of large datasets to train AI models.
• Second, data is a resource whose availability, collection, cleaning, use and sharing is affected by factors such as collection costs, lack of real-world data in certain domains, as well as regulatory, legal and ethical constraints.
• Third, data quality, representativeness, and diversity are directly linked to an AI model’s performance, level of bias, accuracy and reliability.

Synthetic data – data that is artificially generated in the digital world with properties that are often derived from an original set of data – has been proposed as a solution to address some of these data-related issues, especially for AI model training. However, synthetic data is no panacea, and has been shown to potentially exacerbate many of the issues it seeks to curtail, sparking governance discussions.

To explore the governance challenges of synthetic data in the context of international security, UNIDIR’s Security and Technology Programme held an event titled Technology and Security Seminar on Synthetic Data: Exploring Governance Implications.

This report provides a summary of the key themes and takeaways from discussions at the event. The report is divided into two parts, reflecting the structure of the event. The first part provides a short overview of the technology and its uses in the military domain. The second part presents the various views, issues and potential challenges to governance presented by synthetic data in the context of international security.

Citation: Federico Mantellassi, “Governance Implications of Synthetic Data in the Context of International Security”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2024.

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Since 1999, the UN has expressed concern over the misuse of ICTs and initiated multilateral processes, including Groups of Governmental Experts and Open-ended Working Groups (OEWGs), to address ICT threats. With the second OEWG concluding in 2025, there is a recognized need for a permanent mechanism under UN auspices to ensure continuity in addressing ICT security. Key resolutions (75/240, 77/37, and 78/16) and past consensus OEWG reports have laid the groundwork for further action, culminating in States recommending the establishment of a future permanent mechanism at the 8th substantive session of the OEWG in July 2024.

Background

The initial iteration of this report was developed as food-for-thought to support discussions among State representatives during a UNIDIR workshop on future permanent mechanism convened in June 2024. An updated version of this report was shared with delegates ahead of the 8th substantive session of the Open-ended Working Group (OEWG) in July 2024, where formal deliberations on establishing a permanent mechanism on ICT security took place.

The new iteration synthesizes insights from UN General Assembly resolutions, OEWG sessions and State submissions, offering potential pathways for creating a fit-for-purpose permanent mechanism on ICT security. It also contains an appendix summarizing discussions from the June 2024 UNIDIR workshop and highlighting specific elements of the future permanent mechanism agreed by States at the OEWG in July 2024.

Key findings 

This report highlights the following areas of convergence, divergence and key findings:

• Areas of convergence: States agree on the need for a permanent mechanism to promote international peace and security in cyberspace, as well as its general purpose, structure and guiding principles of inclusivity, flexibility, transparency, sustainability, complementarity and non-duplication.
• Areas of divergence: Differences remain regarding the mechanism’s precise modalities, thematic focus and programmatic priorities. Specific issues, such as its name, sequencing of activities, participation of non-governmental stakeholders and thematic groups, also require further discussions.

The report also highlights that the success and long-term viability of a permanent UN mechanism on ICT security will depend on finding a balance between high-level political discussions and technical exchanges. By building on areas of convergence and incorporating ongoing discussions around divergences, States can establish a sustainable mechanism capable of enhancing international cooperation and strengthening global ICT security over time while minimizing the risk of institutional gridlocks.

Citation: UNIDIR Security and Technology Programme, “Towards regular institutional dialogue on international ICT security: Review of current proposals and considerations for effective dialogue”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2024. 

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Citation: Malekos Smith, Zhanna L., and Persi Paoli, Giacomo. “Quantum Technology, Peace and Security: A Primer”. Geneva, Switzerland: UNIDIR, 2024.

Funded by

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Between 2 July and 5 September 2024, UNIDIR and the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs co-organized a series of three webinars on UAS. This summary highlights the key points made by the speakers on issues pertaining to terms and classifications of UAS, benefits and risks of (mis)use, and possible actions to address the identified threats.

Citation: Sarah Grand-Clément, “Armed and dangerous? A brief overview of uncrewed aerial systems: risks, impacts, and avenues for action”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2024. https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/24/ERC/11.

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National positions can foster transparency on the national level as well as internationally. They can act as a reference document and can therefore guide bilateral engagement with international partners as well as national contributions to multilateral processes dedicated to State use of information and communications technology in the context of international peace and security. When drafted in consultation with international partners, a national position can foster international cooperation. It can also enhance preparedness to address future cyber operations by providing national guidelines with respect to assessment, classification and response to variety of malicious cyber operations. Finally, the utility of national positions can be found in their ability to contribute to the development of international law in general.

National positions are dynamic in nature. A State’s national position could initially focus on key issues as defined by that State’s interest and capacity. This approach requires prioritizing certain legal areas, with the understanding that the position may evolve in the future. In particular, it may need to adapt to technological developments and evolving multilateral discussions.

To maximize their utility, national positions should prioritize the interpretation of principles and rules previously agreed by the various multilateral discussions as applicable to State use of ICT. When deciding on the content of its national position, a State could further consult existing regional approaches to the topic and the national positions of other States. Indeed, topics most frequently addressed by existing national positions include the United Nations Charter, international humanitarian law, the law of State responsibility, due diligence and international human rights law.

Last but not least, this compendium suggests 10 steps that a State could consider taking when developing its national position – starting with defining the scope of the position through, inter alia, threat landscape assessment and consideration of foreign policy priorities, and concluding with publication and dissemination of the position.

Citation: UNIDIR Security and Technology Programme, “A Compendium of Good Practices: Developing a National Position on the Interpretation of International Law and State Use of ICT”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2024.

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To address this knowledge gap, this compendium is dedicated to the identification and analysis of the most salient advancements in enabling technologies, with a particular emphasis on those still in their early stages of development or application. The compendium explores four categories of enabling technologies: advanced materials (semiconductors, superconductors and nanotechnology), parts and components (microchips and sensors), processing and computing (cloud, edge and quantum computing), and infrastructure (fifth- and sixth-generation telecommunications (5G and 6G), the Internet of Things, cloud infrastructure and satellite communications).

Citation: Wenting He (2024). “Enabling Technologies and International Security: A Compendium (2023 Edition)”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

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This paper seeks to bridge this gap by presenting a needs-driven, systematic, and context-sensitive framework to identify and assess technologies that could strengthen efforts to counter the diversion of conventional arms and related components.

The first step of this framework requires an understanding of the risks and methods of diversion, tailored to each specific type of conventional weapon and its life-cycle context. The second step examines the existing technologies which could help address the identified risk(s). The final step assesses the identified technologies according to the context(s) in which they would be applied, as well as against selected attributes the technologies should possess.

The paper also provides two illustrations to show how the framework could be applied to small arms and light weapons on the one hand, and components of conventional weapons on the other.

Sponsor Organizations: Germany (Conventional Arms and Ammunition Programme) and Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Microsoft (Security and Technology Programme).

Citation: Sarah Grand-Clément and Diederik Cops (2023) “Project D-TECT: Technologies to Counter the Diversion of Small Arms and Light Weapons, and Components of Conventional Weapons”, UNIDIR and the Flemish Peace Institute. https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/23/ERC/08

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Traditionally, ceasefire monitoring and verification has been human-led. In some circumstances, it can however be difficult deploy observers on the ground. While technology cannot replace humans in all aspects of the monitoring and verification of ceasefires, especially within dialogue and de-escalation efforts, technology can nonetheless support and complement human-led activities. 

This report explains what technological solutions are available to help monitor and verify ceasefires, outlining the respective technological advantages and limitations of each solution. The report also provides a series of guiding considerations around the use of technology, highlighting recommended issues to reflect upon before using technology to aid with ceasefire monitoring and verification 

Sponsor Organizations: Germany (Conventional Arms and Ammunition Programme) and Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Microsoft (Security and Technology Programme).

Citation: Sarah Grand-Clément (2022) “Exploring the Use of Technology for Remote Ceasefire Monitoring and Verification”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/22/ERC/06

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HIGHLIGHTS & RECORDINGS:

• Read a brief summary of the Conference Highlights
• Watch all of the conference sessions again (via the UNIDIR YouTube channel or below)

Teaser: Deepfakes, Trust and International Security

Citation: Alisha Anand and Belen Bianco (2021) “The 2021 Innovations Dialogue Conference Report: Deepfakes, Trust and International Security”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

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This paper provides a brief overview of DLT, including its main characteristics, benefits and risks, as well as its potential applications and utility in the context of arms control and non-proliferation.

Sponsor Organizations: Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland and Microsoft

Citation: Giacomo Persi Paoli and Cindy Vestergaard (2021) “Exploring Distributed Ledger Technology for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation: A Primer”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

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This study seeks to inform discussions on establishing a dedicated and systematic S&T review process under the BWC through an examination of existing S&T review-type mechanisms employed in different regimes beyond the BWC, a survey of States Parties views on a possible review mechanism and a study of past and present discourse on this issue in the BWC. Based on the analysis conducted, this study also presents options for BWC States Parties to consider ahead of the Ninth BWC Review Conference.

Citation: James Revill, Alisha Anand and Giacomo Persi Paoli (2021) “Exploring Science and Technology Review Mechanisms Under the Biological Weapons Convention”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.37559/SECTEC/2021/SandTreviews/01

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Citation: Alisha Anand (2020) “The 2020 Innovations Dialogue Conference Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

Teaser: Life Sciences, International Security and Disarmament

Sponsor Organizations: SecTec core funders: the Governments of Germany, the Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland, and by Microsoft.

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It highlights the importance of data centres and of access to computing power (“compute” for short) as enablers of AI-driven capabilities. It also points to a clear step up in the steadily growing role and responsibility of private technology actors in 21st century warfare.

The role of the commercial cloud in warfare

It is first worth setting out why commercial data centres may be seen as targets, and what role they – and cloud computing more generally – play in modern military operations. Data centres are the physical backbone of the digital infrastructure that enables much of the digital capabilities now required by military operations.

Cloud computing enables access to the vast quantities of compute needed to train and deploy AI algorithms as well as to store, move and analyse data. Data centres are therefore a key element in the ability of modern militaries to leverage AI for autonomous capabilities, decision-support systems, data-fusion, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities and targeting. No public information, however, exists to ascertain whether these specific data centres were directly contributing to ongoing military operations.

The role of AI in military operations is continuing to expand as battlefields produce ever more sensor data and require more compute. Operations are thus becoming increasingly reliant on ever more – and faster – collection, fusion and analysis of data. With these changes, the role of commercial cloud service providers (CSPs) – the only ones currently capable of managing such scale – is only likely to grow.

Security implications of targeting data centres

Targeting data centres has clear security implications.

• First, the reliance by armed forces on commercial CSPs intertwines military applications with the infrastructure that supports civilian digital applications. As the same data centres support both military and civilian workloads, strikes against them carry a dual risk: they elevate the threat to civilian infrastructure and they lead to cascading effects across civilian life, triggering service outages and possible material effects.

• Second, the targeting of data centres raises questions about how to defend such infrastructure. Hyperscalers – the companies operating the largest data centres – boast advanced cybersecurity capabilities and contingency plans for natural disasters that enable them to ensure service continuity. However, these data centres are built for and considered as commercial enterprises. They are not equipped – or even conceptualized – to deal with military threats. Often the size of small cities, data centres are both difficult to hide and extremely costly to secure against kinetic threats.

• Third, as a globally distributed network, data centres need not reside within a State’s borders to serve their purpose. The free flow of data and workloads across borders is, in many respects, a defining feature of modern cloud architecture. Yet, this means that the digital backbone underpinning military capabilities may be distributed geographically across the territory of neutral States. This carries profound implications for conflict should data centres increasingly become targets. A belligerent may, theoretically, be compelled to target infrastructure well beyond the theatre of active hostilities to deny its adversaries access to their cloud enabled-capabilities. Such strikes risk expanding the borders of a conflict, and so may contribute to escalation dynamics and negatively affect regional security.

Legal ramifications of targeting data centres

The legal implications that stem from these strikes relate in particular to international humanitarian law and the extent to which the private sector may be affected. While States remain the primary subjects of international humanitarian law, a host of implications emerge for industry.
First, a data centre that serves both civilian and military purposes may constitute a legitimate target as a consequence of its potential status as a military objective if it is found to

“make an effective contribution to military action and [if its] total or partial destruction . . . in the circumstances ruling at the time, offers a definite military advantage”

as a result of its nature, location, purpose or use. In the context of data centres and, more generally, digital infrastructure, the crux lies in the extent to which their destruction would offer “definite military advantage”. The assessment of this advantage must be independent of the existence of redundancy measures in the event of damage to this particular facility.

Second, the destruction of digital infrastructure in war points to States’ obligation to take

“all feasible precautions to protect the civilian population and civilian objects under their control against the effects of attacks”.

This issue is of particular importance given the potential second- and third-order effects that their destruction may have on civilian life and the humanitarian sector, where connectivity may constitute a critical enabler. Whether feasible precautions would require the strict, physical separation of civilian data centres from the military or even added measures (either by the States hosting or benefitting from a data centre or by the technology provider) to secure and protect these facilities. Regardless of which actor takes which steps, the importance of clarifying these questions and the expected distribution of roles and responsibilities is further emphasized by the “increased meshing” of civilian and military cloud technologies.

Third, in addition to destruction of the physical hardware, another question arises as to whether the data hosted in dual-use data centres could, itself, constitute a lawful military objective. If this is the case, then the data could be subject to attack by way of (partial) destruction of the infrastructure that hosts it. This issue is of particular relevance due to the increased integration of AI into military systems – and the dependence of these technologies on data throughout their life cycle.

Beyond the technology, the possible targetability of staff working at these data centres arises. While civilians are, in principle, protected from attacks under international humanitarian law, they may lose their protection if they are found to be directly participating in hostilities. Independently of whether contributing to the operation of a dual-use data centre could constitute direct participation in hostilities, this question is of particular importance in the light of today’s technology-heavy defence landscape.

This trend may, subsequently, require the presence of technical personnel, such as engineers, in or near the frontlines for maintenance and other operational functions critical to the deployment and use of military capabilities. There is precedent of such maintenance workshops being established by governmental armed forces. However, States’ dependence on the private sector for military capabilities – extending beyond weapon systems to data centres and other technological infrastructure – is growing. This may lead in the foreseeable future to the deployment in the battlefield of civilian engineers and technicians from technology suppliers to ensure the continued operation and maintenance of that infrastructure.

The need for structured engagement between the public and private sectors

These observations ultimately attest to two realities.
The foremost of these is that risk assessments and mitigation measures for both the public and the private sectors will inevitably evolve from traditional structures. While the destruction of military factories is far from being a novel strategy, the increased reliance on dual-use digital infrastructures such as data centres further emphasizes the need for both States and technology suppliers to re-evaluate their risk assessments.

The large prime contractors in the defence industry may already have established structures and processes for such risk assessments. To the extent that their facilities may be military objectives, technology companies should follow suit if they are to supply, even remotely, capabilities to the military. To this end, States and the private sector should clarify expectations with respect to the distribution of roles and responsibilities, including in the context of risk assessments and mitigation.

The other, equally significant, reality is that the need for structured engagement between the public and the private sectors is now more evident than ever. Beyond risks assessments and clarity on the distribution of roles and responsibilities, establishing shared expectations could ultimately foster predictability, mutual trust and accountability and could contribute positively to international peace and security. States and non-state actors (including industry) have engaged extensively since 2018 on information and communications technologies (ICTs) in the context of international security as part of two United Nations open-ended working groups. The upcoming Global Mechanism on ICT in the context of international security subsequently provides an opportunity to deepen the multi-stakeholder dialogue on, among other things, voluntary norms and international law, particularly the protection of dual-use infrastructure and data.

Specifically on AI, UNIDIR in partnership with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights launched an initiative dedicated to the development of a Framework of Responsible Industry Behaviour for AI in the Military Domain. The framework seeks to provide a practical and actionable set of voluntary guidelines firmly grounded in international law and norms, to be co-developed in collaboration with industry actors and governments.

As the boundary between commercial cloud computing and the military domain continues to blur, the strikes on the data centres in the Gulf confirm that digital infrastructure is not only the backbone of our society, but that it also lies on the frontline of modern conflict. The engagement of the international, multi-stakeholder community with governance processes, including within the United Nations, is now more critical than ever to ensure that current and future infrastructure fosters international peace and security, and does not become the catalyst for escalation and conflict.

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The rapid pace of scientific and technological innovation is reshaping the global security landscape, presenting both opportunities and risks for disarmament efforts. Advances in artificial intelligence (AI), biotechnology, additive manufacturing, and autonomous systems are blurring traditional boundaries between civilian and military applications, creating new challenges for weapons control and verification regimes.

In a response to scientific and technological advancements surpassing global disarmament frameworks, UNIDIR hosted the Watchtower project launch as a side event to the 80th session of the UN General Assembly First Committee. The launch underscored the urgent need to bridge the gap between innovation and international security.

What experts are saying

The launch event spotlighted some of the most pressing implications of science and technology for disarmament regimes. In the realm of conventional arms and ammunition, Rueben Dass, Senior Analyst with the International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research at the S. Rajatnaram School of International Studies noted that “additive manufacturing (3D printing) enables the rapid, decentralized production of weapons components, potentially undermining export controls and fuelling illicit proliferation.”

Blockchain and cryptocurrency innovations, while promising for supply chain transparency, could also facilitate anonymous funding for arms trafficking. For nuclear weapons, Dr Manpreet Sethi, Science and Technology Advisor at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, highlighted that “cyber vulnerabilities in command-and-control systems and the rise of small modular reactors introduce dual-edged risks: enhanced energy security alongside proliferation concerns if safeguards lag.”

Key risks and opportunities

Emerging biotechnologies, such as gene editing and synthetic biology, blur lines between beneficial medical research and chemical or biological weapon development. This is exacerbated by AI tools that democratize access to hazardous designs. Quantum computing further threatens encryption protecting sensitive disarmament data, while AI-driven autonomous systems could erode human oversight in conflict escalation.

Yet, these technologies also hold opportunities for stronger monitoring. AI algorithms could revolutionize safeguards verification by analyzing satellite imagery for undeclared nuclear activities, and mobile apps might empower citizen science for radiation detection. Challenges in science and technology monitoring, however, loom large. The sheer velocity of breakthroughs demands agile, inclusive data-sharing; geopolitical tensions hinder cross-border collaboration; dual-use ambiguities complicate risk assessment; and bridging the divide between scientific communities and policymakers requires sustained trust-building and geographical diversity to ensure equitable representation.

The Watchtower project will provide a systematic horizon-scanning function, track emerging innovations, and assess their potential implications for international peace and security. It will also foster dialogue between policymakers, scientists and disarmament experts to bridge technical and policy perspectives.

What’s next

In January, UNIDIR is gearing up for the launch of the Expert Networks across three disarmament areas:

• Conventional Arms and Ammunition (co-chaired by Rueben Dass and Josephine Dresner);
• Nuclear Weapons (co-chaired by Dr Manpreet Sethi and Dr Hassan Elbahtimy); and
• Chemical and Biological Weapons (co-chaired by Dr Jonathan Forman and Dr Una Jakob).

These Expert Networks will serve as a collaborative platform to exchange insights, pilot methodologies for technological monitoring, and publish periodic assessments.

The Watchtower project builds on UNIDIR’s ongoing research on emerging technologies and their security implications, including recent analyses under the Security and Technology Programme. Previous publications have examined the role of AI in arms control verification, neurotechnology in the military domain, and trends in biotechnology and material science relevant to non-proliferation. The project will complement and expand this body of work, helping ensure that international disarmament policy evolves in step with scientific progress.  

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This commentary will look at the benefits of ratification of international space treaties for States Parties and briefly highlight under-explored opportunities within the existing space governance toolbox. Drawing on primary resources via open-source research as part of the author’s work on UNIDIR’s Space Security Portal, the commentary focuses on the Southeast Asian region – specifically, on the Member States of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) as a case study. This builds on earlier UNIDIR regionally focused activities in Africa, GRULAC and Small Island States, among other regions.  

ASEAN Member States in space 

Member States of ASEAN demonstrate a growing interest in space-related activities for peaceful purposes, increasingly to the attention of private sector actors. Across international fora, statements are regularly and consistently delivered on behalf of ASEAN Member States, reiterating the right to the peaceful use and exploration of outer space, for the benefit of all humankind.  

As such, the region is an illustrative mosaic of how countries take steps towards becoming more established actors in space. Within this group, there are countries that have ratified some or most space treaties (with a majority being members of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and others having requested to participate as observers); countries that have signed but not ratified space treaties; and countries that are not party to most or any space treaties. A timeline of ratification and signatories is provided in Figure 1.  

While ratification binds a State Party to a treaty, a “signatory State” status indicates the desire to continue the treaty implementation process; to proceed to ratification, acceptance or approval, and to avoid acts contrary to the object and purpose of the treaty. As Figure 1 illustrates, a number of countries are party to several treaties. For example, Indonesia has ratified four of the five space treaties. The Philippines has expressed intentions to ratify the Outer Space Treaty (OST), Liability Convention and Rescue Agreement and seems set to become party to all five space treaties, joining the ranks of only 15 other countries worldwide to have ratified all five. Other examples of progress include Malaysia’s ongoing work to become party to the OST and Rescue Agreement. 

The ratification of treaties and the development of domestic policies and legislation can be a long, difficult and resource-intensive process. Nonetheless, as indicated by Figure 1, Southeast Asia is witnessing a growing amount of domestic space legislation and guidelines. For example:  

• The Philippines’ Space Act is a robust example of domestic efforts reinforcing international treaties, having established a policy “to ensure that the Philippines abides by the various international space treaties and principles promulgated by the United Nations”. As such, the Act directly references the OST, Registration Convention and Liability Convention. 
   

• Singapore’s Guidelines for Singapore-Related Space Activities covers the registration of space objects. It is also worth highlighting that Singapore’s Guidelines goes beyond focusing on treaty obligations in promoting space sustainability through “international requirements, guidelines, standards and best practices” such as the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines and Long-Term Sustainability Guidelines.  
   

• Malaysia’s Space Board Act 2022 covers the registration of space objects and creates a register of space objects. Notably, the legislation also has provisions which go further than similar provisions found in the OST: the Space Board Act prohibits the placement, installation, launch, testing or operation of weapons of mass destruction in space; and also prohibits the establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications in space. In contrast, the OST specifically prohibits the placement of weapons of mass destruction in orbit and their stationing in outer space, without addressing their launch, testing or operation. Regarding military bases, installations and fortifications, the OST forbids their installation on celestial bodies rather than in outer space more generally.  

Unilateral steps to take on more expansive laws and policies can be beneficial for the international regime. This may be one way to overcome impasses at the international level and serve as a trust and confidence-building measure. If this were repeated by more countries, these practices could eventually become recognized as international customary law.  

These three examples show how domestic instruments could serve as stepping stones towards ratification by encouraging and expediating future decisions to become a Party to relevant treaties. On top of being an opportunity for knowledge-sharing, domestic mechanisms can be designed with provisions, which in essence, implement treaty obligations. Moreover, contributions such as these to the global space governance landscape can help improve security, safety and sustainability overall and serve as useful examples to other countries, including at the regional level where regional dialogue in Southeast Asia and beyond is already shaping discourse around space security.   

ASEAN plays multiple roles for Southeast Asia in space. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), established in 1994, serves to foster dialogue, consultation and confidence-building on political and security issues relevant to the Asia-Pacific, and includes a geographically diverse total of 27 members. There have been three ARF Track I workshops on space security to date, hosted by Hoi An in 2012, Tokyo in 2014 and Beijing in 2015. 

Separate to the ARF, ASEAN established a Sub-Committee on Space Technology and Applications (SCOSA) in 1999. SCOSA serves as an avenue for projects, activities and programmes such as knowledge-sharing workshops with international partners outside of Southeast Asia. The current objectives of SCOSA were determined in 2016 and run until 2025. It will be interesting to monitor the objectives that emerge subsequently.   

Lastly, it should also be noted that the Asia Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum and the Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organisation regularly organise activities more broadly for the Asia-Pacific region.  

Doubling down on space governance 

All countries have a role to play in preventing space governance from fragmenting, and there is no need to reinvent the wheel. As important as it is to make headway into dealing with new challenges, risks and threats, it is also important to buy into and strengthen existing governance mechanisms. After all, arguably the current toolbox has not been fully utilized by States Parties. While it is beyond the scope of the commentary to explore this topic in greater depth, some preliminary examples follow.  

With respect to the OST: 

• Article IX provides a consultative mechanism between State Parties. The article has latent potential to address issues related to harmful interference in space-related activities, improve transparency in space and benefit relations through demonstrations of trust and cooperation. 
   

• Article XI calls for the sharing and exchange information “to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of the nature, conduct, locations and results” of activities conducted in outer space. This could reduce the risk of miscommunication, misperception and misunderstandings. 
   

• And as lunar activities are set to increase, article XII opens the door to “all stations, installations, equipment and space vehicles on the moon and other celestial bodies… to representatives of other states parties to the Treaty on a basis of reciprocity”. 

Regarding the Registration Convention, increasing compliance and the provision of information beyond what is minimally required would improve this treaty’s key role in transparency and confidence building. Additionally, article VI of the Registration Convention creates a mechanism for requests for information which could also aid in providing greater transparency in space-related activities.  

Information requests and consultations, if utilized in good faith, provide opportunities for countries to explain the rationale behind space activities that are of interest to others and could aid in the identification of space objects and mitigate concerns over their purpose and intent. While providing greater information may generate national security concerns, in an increasingly congesting and contested space environment, the benefits of greater transparency could enable countries to strike a balance in accounting for such concerns.  

Moving beyond treaties, countries are afforded an assortment of initiatives to strengthen existing frameworks for space security governance. States not yet party to the Registration Convention are still able to provide information on their space objects through A/RES/1721(XVI) B. For instance, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic have registered space objects using this approach. Also of relevance is A/RES/62/101 which recommends methods to strengthen the Registration Convention.  

Finally, the reports of the 2013 Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities and 2023 UN Disarmament Commission Working Group II provide a rich selection of transparency and confidence building measures. Instruments such as the Long-Term Sustainability Guidelines (A/74/20, para 163 and Annex II) and Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines remain available for further implementation as well.  

A Path Forward 

An increasing number of countries are charting their journey into the stars. Their ratification of and adherence to space treaties; development of domestic instruments such as legislation and guidelines; and use of existing mechanisms could create a complementary, global patchwork with which to strengthen space governance.  

This would aid in establishing State practice under international law, and the broader acceptance of general principles of law makes it more likely that they could eventually become customary international law. A tapestry of common understanding is ready to be weaved, improving transparency and (re)building trust and confidence. 

The five space treaties, negotiated during the Cold War, remain as enduring symbols of how positive, constructive engagement is possible amidst tension and rivalry. The benefits from the treaties continue to be accrued to this day. While important, forward-looking discussions continue to work on addressing issues relevant to space security, safety and sustainability, the international space community – regardless of their degree of spacefaring prowess – should not lose sight of what it has at present, and the possibilities already available.  

Ching Wei Sooi was a Graduate Professional with UNIDIR’s Space Security and WMD Programmes and is currently pursuing an MA in International Peace and Security at King’s College London. Previously, he was an intern with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs under the Office of the Director. The author would like to thank Almudena Azcárate Ortega, Sarah Erickson and James Revill for their invaluable advice and support on this commentary. 

The post Becoming spacefaring: Southeast Asia’s journey and the future of space governance  first appeared on UNIDIR.

The incoming Council members bring diverse yet complementary maritime perspectives. Greece stands as a shipping superpower, controlling over 17% of global maritime carrying capacity and has already announced maritime security to be one of its six priorities for Council membership. Denmark, home to Moeller-Maersk, the world’s largest container shipping company, has demonstrated consistent leadership in counter-piracy initiatives through its contributions to multinational operations and capacity-building efforts. Panama, as the world’s premier flag state, represents approximately 16% of global shipping and brings important expertise in maritime administration and regulation, but also the challenges faced by small island states.

Somalia brings crucial firsthand experience in maritime security challenges, having transformed from the epicentre of Indian Ocean piracy to a partner in regional maritime security. This remarkable transformation, achieved through international cooperation and capacity building, offers valuable lessons for addressing maritime security challenges elsewhere. Pakistan contributes significant naval capabilities and has established a strong record of maritime security operations in the Western Indian Ocean, including leadership roles in multinational task forces and regional security initiatives.

A de facto Maritime Security Council

The new Security Council members will join the permanent members (China, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia), all established maritime powers with global naval presence. This unprecedented concentration of maritime expertise and interests effectively establishes a de facto Maritime Security Council, which offers an opportunity to transcend the gridlock of the Council.

Maritime security represents a realm of shared interests, as all nations depend on secure sea lanes and ocean health for their economic wellbeing. While differences exist within the Council, for instance, regarding the interpretation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, maritime security challenges could provide common ground for cooperation. Recent escalations of maritime threats, from attacks on commercial shipping, critical infrastructure breakdowns to environmental degradation, demonstrate that no nation can ensure maritime security alone.

Timing is critical

The maritime domain faces increasing volatility and emerging threats that require coordinated international responses. Recent UNIDIR research has identified 20 critical challenges that will determine the future of security at sea. These range from immediate threats like the proliferation of low-cost weapon systems, the return of sea mine risks, and maritime cyberattacks, to emerging challenges such as securing green energy infrastructure at sea and protecting subsea data cables.

The research also highlights novel concerns including the rise of ‘shadow fleets’ for sanctions evasion, the increasing use of civil vessels for military purposes, and the complex intersection of maritime and outer space security. Environmental challenges feature prominently, from enforcing the new high seas treaty and protecting marine areas to addressing the maritime security implications of climate change, particularly for small island states. Human security dimensions, including Indigenous Peoples’ rights and human rights at sea, complete this comprehensive picture of maritime security challenges.

Moreover, a report from the Department of Peacekeeping Operations highlighted the potential value of UN-flagged maritime operations. Such initiatives could address ongoing maritime security challenges in regions like the Red Sea and the Gulf of Guinea, where coordinated international responses are essential. The success of previous UN-backed maritime security initiatives, such as the Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia, demonstrates the potential for effective multilateral responses to maritime threats.

Strengthening global maritime security governance

In 2025, the Security Council – with members representing major shipping nations, flag states, naval powers and states with direct experience of maritime security challenges – will be uniquely positioned to address emerging maritime threats and spearhead a unified strategic response.

If the five new maritime members act concertedly through their presidencies, the Council could follow up the discussion on establishing a dedicated maritime security mechanism – as debated in 2021 under the presidency of India. Such a mechanism could aid in coordinating responses to urgent maritime security challenges across the United Nations system, feed essential expertise into decision making and develop long-term comprehensive strategies for addressing emerging threats.

As first steps the Council could establish a dedicated committee, utilizing organizational frameworks similar to those employed by its Counter-Terrorism Committee, – and request a report by the Secretary General to develop options for a UN maritime security strategy and office. This would significantly enhance rapid and early response to maritime security incidents, enhancing information sharing among Member States, and developing guidelines for UN-flagged maritime security operations.

The Council’s unique composition also could facilitate the development of innovative approaches to maritime security cooperation. This might include establishing new frameworks for protecting critical maritime infrastructure, developing international standards for maritime cybersecurity, and creating formats for coordinating responses to environmental threats in the maritime domain. By leveraging the diverse expertise and experiences of its members, the Security Council could lead the way in building a more secure and sustainable maritime order for the 21st century.

The post All hands on deck at the United Nations Security Council first appeared on UNIDIR.

Alongside recognizing the potential of quantum technologies, the UN has raised concerns regarding their security implications. In 2022, the UN Secretary-General addressed the General Assembly, cautioning against the risks posed by quantum computers, particularly their capacity to “undermine cybersecurity and increase the risk of malfunctions in complex systems.” He also emphasized the lack of a “global framework to address these risks.”

The impact of quantum advancements

Quantum technologies are rapidly progressing beyond the lab, with the potential to revolutionize numerous sectors and profoundly influence the future of the global economy, security frameworks, and scientific discovery. Governments worldwide are acknowledging quantum technology as a strategic priority, viewing its applications as essential to economic growth, technological leadership, and national security.

For example, quantum computers could solve complex problems beyond the reach of classical computing, impacting fields like supply chain optimization, material science, and drug discovery. Rapid advancements in quantum cryptography, communications and sensing can revolutionize these sectors and reshape global economies, defense infrastructures, and scientific research. Although several applications are still in the developmental phase, recent breakthroughs indicate substantial progress.

Historically confined to academia, quantum technology is now seeing significant investment from both the public and private sectors, accelerating its transition to real-world applications. Tech giants, startups, and government initiatives are pouring resources into quantum research and development, fueling competition and innovation. This trend highlights the urgency of establishing ethical, regulatory and security standards to guide the deployment of quantum technologies in ways that benefit society while minimizing potential risks.

As quantum technologies continue to develop, the global community is entering a pivotal era where these advancements could bring unparalleled opportunities as well as critical challenges.

UNIDIR’s role in quantum security

In this rapidly evolving landscape, UNIDIR’s Security and Technology Programme is instrumental in shaping global understanding and policy on quantum technologies. Through focused initiatives, the programme offers policymakers and stakeholders a clear perspective on the complexities and security challenges posed by quantum advancements. Key activities include:

• 2023 Multistakeholder Dialogue on Quantum Technologies – UNIDIR brought together experts from various fields to explore the policy, security and ethical considerations essential to responsible quantum development and their implications for international peace and security.
• A Compendium on Enabling Technologies and International Security – UNIDIR published an in-depth compendium that examines enabling technologies, including quantum, providing foundational insights for stakeholders navigating the intersection of emerging technology and global security.
• A Primer on Quantum Technology, Peace and Security – UNIDIR’s publication explores how quantum’s transformative potential could revolutionize sectors such as cybersecurity and defense, highlighting both opportunities for innovation and risks to international security.
• ​2024 Innovations Dialogue on Quantum Technologies – On 22 November, in collaboration with the Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator, UNIDIR hosted the 2024 Innovations Dialogue focused on quantum technology’s implications for international peace and security. This event offered a forum for experts and policymakers to collaboratively address challenges and identify frameworks to responsibly integrate quantum advancements.

As we approach the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology, UNIDIR remains committed to equipping stakeholders with the insights needed to navigate the transformative potential of quantum technology and shape a safer and more secure quantum future for all.

The post Shaping a safer quantum future first appeared on UNIDIR.

Under the theme Quantum Technologies and their Implications for International Peace and Security, the event will bring together leading scientists, policy experts and industry representatives to address the transformative impact of quantum technologies on international security. It will provide a platform for in-depth discussions on the peaceful use of quantum technologies and the importance of collaborative international frameworks to prevent misuse.

Quantum technology has the power to redefine the boundaries of global security, presenting both incredible opportunities and significant risks. Its rapid advancement compels us to confront new ethical and governance challenges that go beyond traditional frameworks. By teaming up with GESDA, we aim to bring together diverse voices and build bridges between innovation and diplomacy – setting the stage for responsible innovation for the benefit of all.

Dr Robin Geiss, UNIDIR Director

As technological advancements continue to reshape the global landscape, quantum technologies are emerging at the forefront of innovation. Following last year’s UNIDIR multistakeholder dialogue on quantum, the 2024 Innovations Dialogue will allow experts to assess the state of quantum technology, examine its implications for strategic stability and explore opportunities for multilateral engagement on risk management and regulation. Through interdisciplinary discussions, participants will address critical questions around the ethical dimensions, potential misuse and governance needs surrounding quantum technology in the context of global peace.

Quantum computing stands at the frontier of technological innovation, with the potential to revolutionize our approach to solving some of the world’s most pressing challenges, including those related to global security. Through the GESDA’s ‘Quantum for All’ initiative—encompassing the Open Quantum Institute, the XPRIZE in partnership with Google and efforts to activate the private sector—GESDA focuses on unlocking this transformative power to responsibly integrate quantum technologies into solutions that benefit humanity. We are delighted to join forces with UNIDIR on this year’s Innovations Dialogue: it will offer a vital platform to deepen the discussions on leveraging quantum technology for global security issues.

Sandro Giuliani, GESDA CEO

The Innovations Dialogue is organized by UNIDIR’s Security and Technology Programme, which works to address global security challenges posed by emerging digital technologies, and is co-sponsored by the Czech Republic, the European Union, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland and Microsoft. This flagship event serves as a unique multistakeholder forum examining developments in science and technology that have significant implications for international peace and security.

For further information, please contact Claudia Marquina, UNIDIR Head of Communications at claudia.marquina@un.org.

For further information about GESDA and its Quantum for All initiative, please contact Jean-Marc Crevoisier, Director of Marketing & Communication at jean-marc.crevoisier@gesda.global.

About UNIDIR

The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) is an autonomous institution within the United Nations that conducts independent research on pressing global challenges related to disarmament, arms control and international security. Our research expertise promotes an inclusive dialogue to find creative and effective solutions. Our work aims to provide the foundations for meaningful collective action towards a more secure world. For more information, visit unidir.org.

About GESDA

The Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator (GESDA) is an independent non-profit foundation under Swiss law and a private-public partnership with the Swiss and Geneva authorities. Created in 2019, it aims at strengthening the impact and innovation capacity of the international community through science and diplomacy anticipation. For more information, visit gesda.global.

The post UNIDIR and GESDA to explore quantum’s impact on international peace and security first appeared on UNIDIR.