This convergence introduces new and potentially significant risks. They include possible attacks on biological research and development facilities, targeting the confidentiality, integrity and accessibility of information. In the context of international peace and security, ICT incidents present a spectrum of consequences, from minor to significant. For example, a minor event could involve a malicious actor spoofing an agricultural facility’s sensors to transmit false data to owner, impacting the annual production of crops. Conversely, a significant event could involve a malicious actor infiltrating the ICT systems of a biological research and development facility, to interfere with an automated production system, remotely altering the compounds, thus rendering its product ineffective, or worse, harmful.

Various scholars and practitioners have attempted to name and define a concept recognizing the unique characteristics of the infrastructure, data, vectors, and risk implications at this nexus. Cyberbiosecurity refers to a collection of practices aimed at addressing the potential ICT threats to those systems at the intersection of the digital and biological domains. More specifically, it includes methods, procedures and measures to tackle ICT threats to biosafety and biosecurity.

To better understand the nexus between ICT and the biological field, this paper begins with an outline of some of the benefits introduced by the integration of advanced ICT in biological research and development. It then introduces the above definition of the concept of ‘cyberbiosecurity’ and proceeds to outline some of the key risks at this nexus. The New Agenda for Peace launched by the Secretary-General in 2023 highlights the need for Member States to prevent the weaponization of emerging domains and promote responsible innovation (Action 11). The 2024 Summit of the Future was an opportunity for Member States to reaffirm their commitment to the prevention of biorisks and misuse of emerging technologies. This was particularly reflected in the Pact for the Future, specifically in Action 26 (to uphold disarmament obligations and commitments) and Action 27 (to seize opportunities associated with new and emerging technologies and address potential risks posed by their misuse). Cyberbiosecurity appears at the junction of these two goals.

This notion has however received tangential attention in the multilateral discussion on international ICT security, specifically the General Assembly subsidiary bodies the Groups of Governmental Experts from 2004 to 2021 and Open-ended Working Groups since 2019. In the context of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC), limited attention has been given to cyberbiosecurity related issues. There are however cyber-related elements mentioned in documents and statements of the last 10 years.

Finally, in the United Nations Security Council, several States have expressed concern over the increase in cyber operations targeting critical infrastructure, including in the health sector, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. While not encompassing all aspects of this issue, these discussions can help in sensitizing the international community and practitioners on the need for better measures.

 One way forward could be to clarify the breadth of the concept of cyberbiosecurity through exchanges with relevant communities and considering cyberbiosecurity in the context of the ongoing BWC Working Group, notably in discussions on scientific and technological developments. This approach could allow for an exchange of views and good practices in the cyber domain and their applicability to biological research and development facilities.

Citation: Louison Mazeaud and Andraz Kastelic, “Cyberbiosecurity: A Matter of International Peace and Security?” UNIDIR, Geneva, 2025. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/25/CBW/02.

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This report outlines seven approaches to biosecurity related educational initiatives drawing from a wide range of past and present activities in this area. It provides a general overview of the relevance of this form of education in the work of both the Biological Weapons Convention and the World Health Organization. The report then explores a roadmap for the development of a systematic process of integrating biosecurity into life science teaching. Finally, the appendix showcases some of the biosecurity-related education initiatives undertaken by national, regional and international actors.

Citation: Sarah Ruth Opatowski, Biorisk Governance: Advancing Biosecurity Education for Life Scientists (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2025), https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/25/CBW/01.

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It identifies the possible implications of such adjustments on States’ positions regarding non-proliferation and disarmament initiatives, including the Middle East WMD Free Zone. The paper proposes a number of options to promote and enhance the security value of the Zone, including greater integration of the Zone with ongoing and future regional dialogues. The proposed options aim at strengthening the Zone’s core threat reduction, confidence-building and regional cooperation functions.

Citation: Abdolrasool Divsallar,“Combating Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East: The Role of the WMD-Free Zone Initiative,” (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2025), https://www.doi.org/10.37559/MEWMDFZ/2025/CombatingWMD.

The post Combating Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East: The Role of the WMD-Free Zone Initiative first appeared on UNIDIR.

This report provides conceptual insights on verification ahead of the BWC Working Group meetings in December 2024. It presents the perspectives of four experts—Dr Ajey Lele (India), Dr Jeremy Littlewood (Canada), Dr Anastasia Malygina (Russian Federation), and Mr Matthew Shearer (United States)—each of whom was invited to respond to three key questions:

• What do you understand by the term BWC verification?
• What is the purpose of BWC verification?
• And what do we want to verify?

This report reflects the views of the respective expert and is intended to provide food for thought on the focus and function of BWC verification.

Citation: Ajey Lele, Jeremy Littlewood, Anastasia Malygina and Matthew P. Shearer. 2024. The Focus and Function of BWC Verification. UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/24/CBW/04.

Funded by

Effective Giving

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However, the traditional model of verification is not the only model available to BWC States Parties. Depending on the function(s) and focus of any verification mechanism, other options could be developed for BWC verification that might more effectively address the concerns of BWC States Parties and potentially reduce costs of verification while still increasing confidence in compliance.

Funded by

Effective Giving

Citation – Revill, James. 2024. Possible Models of BWC Verification, UNIDIR, Geneva

https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/24/CBW/03

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Citation: Middle East WMD-Free Zone Project (2024) “Understanding the Middle East WMD-Free Zone Conference” UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

The post Understanding the Middle East WMD-Free Zone Conference first appeared on UNIDIR.

This report begins by laying out the genesis and evolution of the implementation of peer review-type initiatives in the context of other voluntary initiatives to enhance transparency. The report proceeds to outline the key elements of the six PREs that were organized to date, providing an overview of their duration, location, objectives, focus, stakeholders, process and results. The report then turns to address the wider discussion within the BWC around the VTIs in general and the PREs in particular. The report concludes with some reflections on the advantages and disadvantages of such initiatives and possible ways to advance work on this topic. An annex to this report includes a side by side summary of the main features of each of the PREs that were held to help compare the different ways in which they are conceived and executed.

Citation: Espona, M.J. (2024). Voluntary Transparency Initiatives: The Case of Peer Review Exercises in the Context of the BWC, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/24/CBW/02.

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The Biorisks, Biosecurity and Biological Disarmament Conference took place in Geneva, Switzerland, on 4–5 July 2023. The event provided an opportunity to discuss ongoing diplomatic processes and current and upcoming issues in the areas of biorisk, biosecurity and biological disarmament. 

More than 80 individuals from 30 countries, representing 60 institutions, participated in the discussion in person, and a further 334 individuals joined the discussion virtually from around the world. The participants included diplomats, public health professionals, security experts and scientists from a wide range of organizations. 

The Conference consisted of seven substantive panels, which explored a range of topics, centred on advances in science and technology and their related risks and benefits, biosecurity implementation, dual-use governance, disease response, international cooperation, and verification technologies. The discussions that took place during all seven panels are summarized in this conference report.

Citation: Daniel Feakes, Maria Garzon Maceda, Alex Lampalzer, Jade Mason, Soatiana Rajatonirina, James Revill, Anna Laura Ross, Veronica Rovegno, Emmanuelle Tuerlings, Taylor Winkleman (eds), “2023 Biorisks, Biosecurity and Biological Disarmament Conference Report”, UNIDIR, UNODA, WHO, Geneva, 2024. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/24/CBW/01  

The post 2023 Biorisks, Biosecurity and Biological Disarmament Conference Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

Although these treaties and their respective Review Conference processes vary, the experiences over 12 months between August 2022 and May 2023 provide an important snapshot of the state of the WMD treaty regime. As such, there is merit in reflecting on these three processes jointly and exploring the commonalities and differences across three agreements dealing with the world’s most destructive weapons, as well as gathering lessons learned for future work in these fields.

To this end, UNIDIR invited the Presidents of the three Review Conferences to provide their reflections on their respective Review Conference processes. This publication brings together insights from Ambassador Gustavo Zlauvinen (Argentina), President of the tenth NPT Review Conference; Ambassador Leonardo Bencini (Italy), President of the ninth BWC Review Conference; and Ambassador Henk Cor Van der Kwast (the Kingdom of the Netherlands) who presided over the fifth CWC Review Conference. The Ambassadors take stock of the preparatory processes and the events that unfolded, and provide reflections for moving forward in the NPT, the BWC and the CWC respectively. Izumi Nakamitsu, High Representative for Disarmament Affairs, provides a foreword. The publication also includes a short summary of findings by the editors.

Citation: Leonardo Bencini, Henk Cor van der Kwast & Gustavo Zlauvinen (2023) “Reflections on Review Conferences: the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/RevCon/01

The post Reflections on Review Conferences: the Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention first appeared on UNIDIR.

This UNIDIR report, the first in a series, serves as a primer for the consideration of verification in the context of the BWC, with a particular focus on Article I and the core obligations contained in the title of the BWC. The paper begins with elements of a working definition of verification, before considering theoretically what contemporary biological weapons and biological weapons programmes might look like. The paper proceeds to discuss tools and approaches to verification of the BWC, and the importance of agreed procedures and resources, before concluding with some reflections on what the Working Group might be able to achieve.

This research was made possible by support from China and Effective Giving.

Citation: James Revill (2023) “Verifying the BWC: A Primer”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/Bio.verification.primer1

The post Verifying the BWC: A Primer first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Sarah Ruth Opatowski, “Addressing Chemical and Biological Weapons Challenges through the Middle East Weapons of Mass Destruction-Free Zone” (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2023). https://doi.org/10.37559/MEWMDFZ/2023/CBW.

The post Addressing Chemical and Biological Weapons Challenges Through the Middle East Weapons of Mass Destruction-Free Zone: Workshop Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

Progress with the CWC will however require careful preparation both in terms of the development of substantive inputs and ideas, but also raising awareness and understanding of the CWC and the Review Conference process. To support the CWC delegates, this report includes factual material on the historical experiences related to preparations, proposals, procedures, and participation in past Review Conferences.

It also includes a brief, balanced analysis of salient issues that are likely to be addressed at the Fifth Review Conference. Furthermore, it makes recommendation for preparing for the Review Conference.
 

Executive Summaries in All UN Languages

Arabic • Chinese • English • French • Russian • Spanish

Citation: Alexander Ghionis, Alexander Kelle and María Garzón Maceda (2023) “Preparing for Success at the Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention: A Guide to the Issues”, UNIDIR, Geneva, https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/CWC/01

The post Preparing for Success at the Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention: A Guide to the Issues first appeared on UNIDIR.

To address this gap, in 2022, France, Senegal and Togo submitted a revised proposal to the BWC for the “establishment of an international platform dedicated to biosecurity and biosafety: SecBio”. The proposal includes three pillars: a searchable repository for biosafety- and biosecurity-related materials; a learning module; and a forum for expert networking to exchange information, data and best practices. To this end, this report draws lessons from past initiatives to develop repositories, learning modules and expert forums in order to inform the development of the SecBio platform (and any such similar initiatives).

The report begins with an overview of the importance of biosafety and biosecurity in the context of the BWC. It then proceeds to look at each of the platform pillars in turn, drawing from past experiences to identify lessons and develop options for state parties to consider. 

Citation: Kai Ilchmann and James Revill (2022) “Assessing the SecBio Platform Proposal for the Biological Weapons Convention”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/22/BWC/04

The post Assessing the SecBio Platform Proposal for the Biological Weapons Convention first appeared on UNIDIR.

To address this challenge, UNIDIR invited a diverse range of stakeholders and representatives from around the world and with diverse backgrounds to contribute their insights to this report. The contributions reflect activities they had undertaken in support of the BWC, what more their respective communities could do, and provide recommendations on what States Parties to the BWC should do (or not do) to advance the BWC. Collectively, these contributions provide several concrete ideas for BWC States Parties to consider in seeking to strengthen the Convention.

Citation: James Revill, Vivienne Zhang and María Garzón Maceda (eds.) (2022) “Stakeholder perspectives on the Biological Weapons Convention”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/22/BWC/03

The post Stakeholder Perspectives on the Biological Weapons Convention first appeared on UNIDIR.

This report discusses and analyses the use of a novichok nerve agent in the United Kingdom in March 2018. This triggered a political process at the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) that led to the amendment of the CWC schedules. It provides a factual overview of the scientific discussion around the novichok class of chemical agents, and how this has changed since the amendment of the CWC schedules was adopted. Against the background of the cases where nerve agents have been used for political assassination, the report concludes with a discussion of implications of the schedule amendments for compliance with, and implementation of, the chemical weapons prohibition regime. 

Citation: Alexander Kelle (2022) “Adding Novichok Nerve Agents to the CWC Annex on Chemicals: A Technical Fix and its Implications for the Chemical Weapons Prohibition Regime”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.
https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/22/WMDCE/01

Sponsor Organizations: Government of Norway.

The post Adding Novichok Nerve Agents to the CWC Annex on Chemicals: a Technical Fix and Its Implications for the Chemical Weapons Prohibition Regime first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: James Revill, John Borrie and Richard Lennane (2022) “Back to the Future for Verification in the Biological Disarmament Regime?”, UNIDIR, Geneva, https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/22/BWC/02. 

Sponsor Organizations: Government of Norway.

The post Back to the Future for Verification in the Biological Disarmament Regime? first appeared on UNIDIR.

To stimulate thinking ahead of the Review Conference, which is currently scheduled for August 2022, this report provides a forthright assessment of the risks, benefits, and financial implications of four different potential Review Conference outcomes.

A quick reference table of potential outcomes of the Ninth BWC Review Conference is also available.

Citation: Jez Littlewood (2021) “Potential Outcomes of the Ninth BWC Review Conference”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/2021/BWC03

Sponsor Organizations: Governments of France, Germany, Norway and the Philippines.

The post Potential Outcomes of the Ninth BWC Review Conference first appeared on UNIDIR.

To this end, UNIDIR sought input from a diverse range of experts on ideas for advancing Article X, with a particular focus on the promotional aspects of this important article. Building on the contributions of authors, this report outlines ten concrete ideas for States Parties to consider in seeking to enhance the implementation of Article X of the Biological Weapons Convention.

Citation: James Revill and María Garzón Maceda (eds.) (2022) “Options for International Cooperation under Article X of the Biological Weapons Convention”, UNIDIR, Geneva, https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/21/BWC/04.

Sponsor Organizations: Government of Norway.

The post Options for Article X of the Biological Weapons Convention first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Gender and Disarmament Programme (2021) “Factsheet: Gender and Chemical Weapons”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

The post Factsheet: Gender and Chemical Weapons first appeared on UNIDIR.

Sponsor Organizations: International Gender Champions Disarmament Impact Group (Ireland, Namibia, Philippines)

Citation: International Gender Champions Disarmament Impact Group (2021) “Factsheet: Gender and Biological Weapons”.

The post Factsheet: Gender and Biological Weapons first appeared on UNIDIR.

Teaser: A Guide to the Issues

Sponsor Organizations: The Governments of Norway and France

Citation: James Revill, John Borrie, Richard Lennane and Emma Saunders (2021) “Preparing for Success at the Ninth Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention Review Conference”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

The post Preparing for Success at the Ninth Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention Review Conference first appeared on UNIDIR.

It argues that sex- and gender-disaggregated data, as well as knowledge of gender perspectives, can contribute to States’preparedness and enhance the effectiveness of assistance under the Biological and Chemical Weapons Conventions.

It proposes a gender-responsive approach to assistance, which can help States and their populations to become more resilient to and recover more rapidly from chemical or biological incidents.

Citation: Renata Hessmann Dalaqua, James Revill, Alastair Hay and Nancy Connell (2019) “Missing Links: Understanding Sex- and Gender-Related Impacts of Chemical and Biological Weapons.” UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/19/gen1

The post Missing Links: Understanding Sex- and Gender-Related Impacts of Chemical and Biological Weapons first appeared on UNIDIR.

Over the last decade it has become increasingly clear that effective action will require a concerted effort from all those who can play a role in ensuring that the life sciences continue to be used safely, securely and solely for beneficial purposes. This book gathers together many of the best contributions from the recent work within the BWC framework and provides expert reviews of key themes, case studies of interesting national approaches, as well as unique perspectives from the ground. It is a practical tool for implementing the convention, an introductory guide to current best practice at the health/security interface and adds to the historical record of this important international instrument.

Citation: Piers Millett (ed.), et al. (2011). “Improving Implementation of the Biological Weapons Convention: The 2007-2010 Intersessional Process”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

Sponsor Organizations: Piers Millett (ed.), Piers Millett, Masood Khan, Scott Spence, Implementation Support Unit,Implementation Support Unit,Implementation Support Unit, Ngoc Phuong Huynh, Piers Millett, Georgi Avramchev, Piers Millett, Isabelle Daoust-Maleval, Aamer Ikram, Marianne Heisz, Teck Mean Chua, Katsuhisa Furukawa, Robert Mathews, Koos van der Bruggen, Katherine Bowman, Jo Husbands, Ben Rusek & Barbara Schaal, Graham Pearson, Brian Rappert,Cathy Bollaert, Malcolm Dando & Simon Whitby, Marius Grinius, Pedro Oyarce, Ali Mohammadi, Keith Hamilton & Kazuaki Miyagishima, Joris De Baerdemaeker, Robin Coupland, Austin Ochieng Aluoch & Maurice Owuor Ope, Louise Gresham & Leslie Pray, Randall Murch, Richard Lennane

The post Improving Implementation of the Biological Weapons Convention: The 2007-2010 Intersessional Process first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Kerstin Vignard (ed.) (2006). “Disarmament Forum: Toward a Stronger BTWC”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

Disponible aussi en français.

Content

• Editor’s note, Kerstin Vignard
• Special Comment, Masood Khan
• Blood, toil, tears and sweat: the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention since 2001, Richard Lennane
• Strengthening structures for the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: options for remedying the institutional deficit, Nicholas A. Sims
• Confidence-building needs transparency: an analysis of the BTWC’s confidence-building measures, Iris Hunger & Nicolas Isla
• Achieving the outcomes of the Sixth Review Conference, Daniel Feakes & Graham S. Pearson
• The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in context: from monolith to keystone, Piers D. Millett

The post Disarmament Forum: Toward a Stronger BTWC first appeared on UNIDIR.