Ahead of the conference’s second edition, a series of three reports – the first of the AISE Markers series – takes stock of the key takeaways from the previous year and provides an initial basis and scaffolding for UNIDIR’s Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2026. By acting as a bridge between editions, the AISE Markers series ensures that each conference is built on solid ground and constitutes a natural evolution of the discussions held in the previous conference.

This third report provides a structured account of where use cases – both governance and technological – stood in 2025. It offers an overview of discussions surrounding the human element in practice, surveys regional perspectives, zooms in on AI for peace operations and humanitarian applications, and then offers cross-cutting observations that may serve as a baseline for the 2026 edition. Accompanying reports will cover the state of governance and technology.

Citation: Yasmin Afina and Jan Hendrik Mannsperger, “AISE Markers Series – Benchmark III: Use Cases, Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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Ahead of the conference’s second edition, a series of three reports – the first of the AISE Markers series – takes stock of the key takeaways from the previous year and provides an initial basis and scaffolding for UNIDIR’s Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2026. By acting as a bridge between editions, the AISE Markers series ensures that each conference is built on solid ground and constitutes a natural evolution of the discussions held in the previous conference.

This second report provides a structured account of where the conversation on technology stood in 2025. It offers an overview of shared understandings – particularly in the areas of dual-use transformation, life cycle management, data and assurances – and identifies areas that may subsequently serve as a baseline for the 2026 edition. Accompanying reports will cover the state of governance and use cases.

Citation: Yasmin Afina and Jan Hendrik Mannsperger, “AISE Markers Series – Benchmark II: Technology, Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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Ahead of the conference’s second edition, a series of three reports – the first of the AISE Markers series – takes stock of the key takeaways from the previous year and provides an initial basis and scaffolding for UNIDIR’s Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2026. By acting as a bridge between editions, the AISE Markers series ensures that each conference is built on solid ground and constitutes a natural evolution of the discussions held in the previous conference.

This first report provides a structured account of where the conversation on governance stood in 2025. It offers an overview of shared understandings and possible areas of tension, and identifies issues that remain unresolved and may subsequently serve as a baseline for the 2026 edition. Accompanying reports will cover the state of technology and use cases.

Citation: Yasmin Afina and Jan Hendrik Mannsperger, “AISE Markers Series – Benchmark I: Governance, Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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This compendium offers a comprehensive, neutral and technical resource for States, organized around realistic illustrations of how international humanitarian law (IHL) principles and obligations may be considered in practice. The scenarios explore situations of both international and non-international armed conflict, organized into three domains of warfare: air, land and naval domain. Each scenario is accompanied by questions regarding IHL compliance relevant to the (potential) use of LAWS in that context.

The scenario compendium provides a framework to consider operational and legal questions on the use of LAWS and it can be leveraged for two main purposes:

• At the national level, the compendium may support efforts to carry structured legal analysis, which can contribute to the development and refinement of IHL interpretation, as well as the stress-testing of existing, or the development of, new policies, tactics, rules of engagements, etc.
• At the international level, the compendium can be leveraged for capacity building and confidence building. First, the scenarios provide ready-made constructs to explore legal and operational questions, especially useful for States with limited modelling capabilities. Second, in international discussions, the compendium can serve as a common analytical reference to compare and discuss interpretations of IHL and identify areas of convergence and divergence.

Citation: Giacomo Persi Paoli, Ioana Puscas and Yasmin Afina, Scenario Compendium for the Legal, Operational and Technical Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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The report draws on lessons from existing trust fund models, namely the:

• Arms Trade Treaty Voluntary Trust Fund
• United Nations Trust Facility Supporting Cooperation on Arms Regulation
• Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Tsunami, Disaster and Climate Preparedness
• United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Human Trafficking

The aim is to identify key operational and administrative elements and outline three options to inform ongoing discussions among States Parties as they prepare for the First Review Conference of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in late 2026. 

Citation: David C. Atwood and Luiza Delaflora Cassol, “Steps Towards a Voluntary Trust Fund for the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons” (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/26/NDV/01

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This report reviews official State data and information provided under the ATT, the Firearms Protocol and the PoA to assess the utility of UN reporting mechanisms for monitoring SALW flows and identifying risks, gaps and effective practices to counter the illicit SALW trade and reduce its negative impacts. It recommends that the United Nations system and interested stakeholders:

1. Address the data deficit on SALW flows and transfer controls
2. Facilitate the sharing of useful information
3. Promote the use of information to prevent conflict, armed violence and human suffering.

Citation: Hardy Giezendanner, Lara Maria Guedes Gonçalves Costa, Paul Holtom, and Paula Soumaya Domit. Small Arms and Light Weapons Flows and Transfer Controls. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/WAM/07.

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Citation: Abdolrasool Divsallar, “Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Trends in the Middle East: Report of the Middle East WMD-Free Zone Project (2023–2026)”, (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026), https://doi.org/10.37559/MEWMDFZ/2026/NP-trends-ME.

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This toolkit offers practical explanations of how the WPS and arms control/disarmament policy and programming fields are mutually reinforcing, to help demystify these fields and facilitate their integration. It includes dozens of examples and ideas to integrate arms control and disarmament measures into WPS NAPs. Although the examples and suggestions are non-exhaustive, they can serve as references to inspire action on WPS projects and programmes.

Citation: Myrttinen, Henri, Anastaesia Mondesir, and Mariana Terreros Lozano. Toolkit: Addressing Weapons-Related Risks in Women, Peace, and Security National Action Plans. Geneva, Switzerland: UNIDIR, 2026.

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The findings suggest that awareness of drug use is widespread across conflict-affected communities in the Lake Chad Basin. While the data does not support assumptions of widespread addiction among former Boko Haram associates, the brief highlights concerns regarding drug use among some former and current affiliates of community security actors, and how this may affect reintegration, professionalization and support pathways. It underlines the need to incorporate substance-abuse screening into reintegration processes for former associates, while strengthening referral pathways and improving access to affordable prevention and treatment services for affected communities more broadly.

Citation: Francesca Batault, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Mohammed Bukar and Fatima Yetcha Ajimi Badu, “Understanding the Legacies of Drug Use in Armed Groups in the North East of Nigeria,” MEAC Research Brief, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026.

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While not a new technology, recent advances in machine capabilities and declining costs have accelerated its integration into military supply chains, operational environments and industrial production. As a dual-use, cyber-physical manufacturing technology, additive manufacturing offers strategic advantages, but it also raises proliferation and diversion risks that warrant closer scrutiny by policymakers and the arms control community.

As part of UNIDIR’s Science and Technology Watchtower project, this primer provides a short overview of what additive manufacturing is and how it works, explains what types of military equipment it can help produce, who is involved, why it is sought and what its limitations are. It also examines the risks emerging from the use of this technology in manufacturing and provides an overview of existing arms control and transfer control measures, as well as their gaps and limitations. The primer concludes by outlining several considerations for policymakers on how to overcome existing challenges.

Citation: Grand-Clément, Sarah and Sunniva Selmer Reinertsen, Additive Manufacturing of Conventional Military Equipment: Implications for Arms Control and Security. A Primer (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/ERC/06.

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In response, the Fourth Review Conference of the PoA in 2024 established an Open-Ended Technical Expert Group (OETEG). This report aims to introduce national representatives to the four primary issues under the OETEG’s mandate:

1. Polymer frames and receivers
2. Modular SALW
3. 3D printing of SALW
4. Technology to counter diversion of SALW

The report summarizes the current state of knowledge, building on a series of webinars convened between October 2025 and February 2026, background research, and interviews with experts from international organizations, governments, academia, civil society and industry.

It explains each of the four issues, detailing the challenges they pose, outlining approaches to addressing them and highlighting key considerations for the OETEG.

Citation: Ruben Nicolin, Paula Soumaya Domit, Sunniva Selmer Reinertsen and Matilde Vecchioni. Technological Developments in Small Arms: Implications for International Arms Control Instruments. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/ASC/05

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The results highlight that differential assistance participants continue to face direct security threats, placing their physical safety at risk while simultaneously exacerbating economic vulnerability. Additionally, participants have a lack of certainty about their legal benefits and obligations, which can heighten the risk of being detected by armed and criminal groups. These overlapping challenges must be taken seriously since they complicate transitions to civilian life and increase the risk of disengagement from the Differential Assistance process. The report also offers suggestions to strengthen protection and support for participants and contribute to the dismantling of criminal structures and sustainable reintegration outcomes more broadly.

Citation: Sofia Rivas, Angela Olaya, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Siobhan O’Neil, Angela Gomez, “Persistent Insecurity Challenges Impacting Defection Pathways Out of Armed and Criminal Groups in Colombia”, Findings Report 50, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/03

El informe analiza los desafíos de seguridad, así como los obstáculos legales y socioeconómicos, que enfrentan exmiembros de grupos disidentes y criminales que participan en el proceso de Atención Diferencial en Colombia, y examina cómo estos desafíos impactan su progreso.

Los hallazgos se basan en múltiples fuentes, incluyendo una revisión exhaustiva de la literatura, datos recolectados a través de dos rondas de encuestas llevadas a cabo con participantes del proceso de Atención Diferencial de la ARN, así como en las observaciones del equipo MEAC derivadas de su interacción con esta población durante el trabajo de campo.

La primera ronda de encuestas ocurrió en 2022 e incluyó a 50 participantes en tres ubicaciones: Bogotá, Medellín y Cali. La segunda ronda se llevó a cabo en 2025 con un total de 102 participantes en Bogotá, Medellín, Cali y Cundinamarca.

Los resultados destacan que los y las participantes del proceso de Atención Diferencial continúan enfrentando amenazas de seguridad, lo que pone en riesgo su integridad física y, al mismo tiempo, exacerba su vulnerabilidad económica.

Además, los y las participantes muchas veces desconocen sus beneficios y obligaciones legales dentro del proceso, lo que puede aumentar el riesgo de ser identificados por grupos armados y criminales.

Estos desafíos interrelacionados deben tomarse en serio, ya que impactan su tránsito a la vida civil y aumentan el riesgo de que los y las participantes se desvinculen del proceso de Atención Diferencial.

El informe también ofrece sugerencias para fortalecer la protección y el apoyo que se le ofrece a estos participantes y contribuir al desmantelamiento de estructuras criminales y a mejores resultados en materia de reintegración.

Citation: Sofia Rivas, Angela Olaya, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Siobhan O’Neil, Angela Gómez, “Desafíos de Seguridad que Impactan la Salida de Individuos de Grupos Armados y Criminales en Colombia”, Findings Report 50, UNIDIR, Ginebra, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/03.

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It has three core objectives:

• First, it maps the current landscape of official nuclear risk reduction policy proposals.
• Second, it organizes proposed risk reduction measures into a framework of eight overarching categories, enabling the range of measures to be considered within a single, coherent resource.
• And third, it analyses these measures by drawing out the similarities, differences and nuances across the various policy proposals.

The compendium concludes with a list of the official risk reduction documents referenced throughout the publication, totalling over 100 documents. This list provides easy access to over a decade of official proposals by States in their own words.

Citation: Sarah Ruth Opatowski, Nuclear Risk Reduction: An Illustrative Compendium (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/26/NRR/01.

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In the latest action plan, known as the Lausanne Action Plan (2021–2026), CCM States Parties committed to a number of practical steps that integrate gender perspectives and the diverse needs and experiences of people in affected communities into all aspects of mine action and programming.

As the Lausanne Action Plan enters its final year of implementation, it is crucial to assess its impact and reflect on the way forward. This report contributes to that effort by offering an overview of the implementation of action points of the Lausanne Action Plan covering gender, diversity, and inclusion. Drawing on official reporting, as well as an online questionnaire and consultations with States Parties, this report outlines instances of progress achieved regarding the integration of gender considerations and diversity perspectives in treaty implementation, as well as challenges and areas for improvement that could be addressed in the upcoming Vientiane Capital Action Plan.

Citation: Renata Hessmann Dalaqua, Aleksandra Lankamer, and Hana Salama. 2026. Vientiane Calling: Strengthening the Inclusive Implementation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions. UNIDIR, Geneva.

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This country insight presents the main findings of the WAM baseline assessment conducted in October 2024 by the Government of the Republic of The Gambia, through the NatCom SALW, in cooperation with UNIDIR and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The publication draws from the comprehensive baseline assessment report shared by UNIDIR in cooperation with ECOWAS to the Government of The Gambia. It includes information on existing institutional and operational capacities, policies and procedures, as well as challenges faced by national authorities at strategic and operational levels, and options for further strengthening the national framework governing through-life management of weapons and ammunition in The Gambia.

UNIDIR encourages States, regional and sub-regional organisations, and relevant international partners to consult this WAM country insight, as well as its country insight series and annual updates. These resources can serve as a basis for strengthening WAM policies and practices at different levels and for planning, implementing and evaluating future projects related to WAM and areas in The Gambia, as well as other African States respectively.

Citation: Theò Bajon and Hardy Giezendanner. “Weapons and Ammunition Management Country Insight: Republic of The Gambia”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/WAM/04.

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Neurotechnologies, while still emerging, are advancing rapidly and gaining prominence. These technologies have a clear dual-use nature: in addition to civilian applications, military research laboratories are actively exploring ways to enhance soldiers’ cognitive, sensory and physical capabilities, including through direct brain-machine interfaces with uncrewed systems. The potential military use of neurotechnologies raises significant security concerns and could affect the conduct of warfare, presenting complex disarmament, ethical and legal challenges.

The Innovations Dialogue 2025, building on existing international efforts, sought to provide a neutral space to address this topic through the lens of arms control, disarmament and international security. It did so by examining the current state of neurotechnologies, considering associated risks and opportunities for international peace and security, and exploring pathways towards responsible governance.

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By examining official documents, analyzing relevant laws and regulations, and investigating the structure of government agencies, this paper sheds light on the Republic of Korea’s potential to conduct international cyber operations and the principles likely to govern their deployment.

Citation: So Jeong Kim, International Cyber Operations: Doctrines and Capabilities of the Republic of Korea (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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Drawing on data from 13 RECSA Member States, the study establishes 2005 and 2025 baselines across 16 thematic areas. The review finds clear progress in the implementation of the Nairobi Protocol. Member States have reinforced national legislation and established transfer control systems, while improving stockpile management, weapons marking and record-keeping. Controls over civilian possession and commercial actors have also expanded, alongside growing institutional and enforcement capacity. Yet implementation remains uneven, with persistent weaknesses in legislation, cross-border cooperation, civilian licensing, border control, tracing, record-keeping, and the collection and destruction of illicit and surplus SALW.

The report recommends that RECSA Member States undertake a review of the Nairobi Protocol to strengthen existing provisions, align it with global and African frameworks, and address new and emerging threats. By identifying effective practices and common challenges, this scorecard provides an analytical foundation for amending the Nairobi Protocol, revising its Best Practice Guidelines and developing a five-year action plan, which will in turn equip States with updated guidance for effective SALW control.

Citation: Ruben Nicolin, Lillian Wamuyu, Benjamin Agage and Paul Holtom. The Nairobi Protocol on Small Arms and Light Weapons at 20: A Regional Implementation Scorecard. Geneva, Nairobi: UNIDIR, RECSA, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/ASC/03.

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After a decade of reporting under the ATT, how much transparency exists regarding transfers of SALW? What has changed in practice? This policy brief examines reporting trends for the period 2015–2024 and assesses what the available data reveal about how ATT States Parties implement the Treaty’s obligations.

It highlights both the progress and the worrying trends in State reporting on international transfers of SALW and explores how additional national reporting practices, such as information on brokering authorisations and licence denials, could further strengthen understanding of the global authorised SALW trade. The analysis aims to provide food for thought ahead of the March 2026 meetings of the ATT Working Group on Transparency and Reporting.

Citation: Lara Maria Guedes Gonçalves Costa and Paul Holtom. Arms Trade Treaty Reporting on Small Arms Transfers: What Have We Learned? Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026

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Citation: Sean Molloy, ”Reframing Child Participation in Today’s Conflict-Affected Contexts”, MEAC Research into Action, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/02.  

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Through a series of dynamic, multi-stakeholder panel discussions, the event examined the ripple effects such incidents can have across borders and sectors, highlighting the growing interdependence of digital ecosystems.

This report also offers clear, action-oriented guidance for relevant stakeholders seeking to enhance resilience, cooperation, and preparedness.

Citation: UNIDIR Security and Technology Programme, 2025 Cyber Stability Conference, Crisis Averted: Cyber Resilience in Action (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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Organized into three interrelated sections, the report explores:

• Evolving cyberthreats: From attacks on critical infrastructure and supply chains to the rise of ransomware, disinformation and cybercrime, this section analyses how the growing scale and complexity of cyberattacks pose systemic risks to national, regional and global stability. It explains how these threats operate and includes case-based illustrations of their real-world impacts on peace and security.
• Cyberthreat actors: Examining the increasingly blurred lines between State and non-State actors in cyberspace. This section explores the motivations and tactics of various actors, including States, cybercriminals, hacktivists and private entities, and highlights how overlapping behaviours may complicate response.
• Emerging technologies: Focusing on artificial intelligence and quantum computing, this section outlines how technological advancements are reshaping offensive and defensive cyber operations. The report considers how these technologies offer new opportunities for cybersecurity while also creating new vulnerabilities and strategic risks for the international community.

Throughout, the report provides explanatory textboxes designed to help diplomats and policymakers better understand how cyberattacks work at a technical level, as well as case studies that concretely demonstrate the international security impacts of malicious cyber activity. By demystifying complex technical concepts and contemporary trends, the report hopes to support national and international deliberations to strengthen resilience, reduce risks and advance an open, secure, stable, accessible and peaceful cyberspace for all.

Citation: UNIDIR Security and Technology Programme, Securing Cyberspace for Peace: Insights into Cyberthreats and International Security in 2025 (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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Against this background, UNIDIR, the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs and the United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Africa organized in 2023 a regional seminar on preventing violent extremism (PVE) and weapons and ammunition management (WAM) in West Africa. The seminar called for adopting an integrated approach to both issues and recommended a study to support this paradigm shift.

This empirical study examines an integrated approach to address the illicit supply of weapons and the root causes of violence by analyzing intersections between PVE and WAM across policy frameworks, institutions and operational practices. It identifies existing good examples of integrating PVE and WAM and explores promising, context-specific opportunities in the region. The study derives practical steps to support States, regional and continental organizations, UN entities and other stakeholders in operationalizing such an integrated approach in West Africa and beyond.

Citation: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Africa, and Peace and Human Rights Division of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, “Integrating the Prevention of Violent Extremism and Illicit Weapons Proliferation in West Africa: A Way Forward”, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/PACAV/02 

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This report summarizes key discussions and takeaways from the conference’s sessions.

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