Publications → UNIDIR

Additive Manufacturing of Conventional Military Equipment: Implications for Arms Control and Security

Maria Belen Lopez Conte — Mon, 11 May 2026 16:01:17 +0000

Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is increasingly being adopted in defence and military contexts, with significant implications for conventional arms production, arms control and international security.

While not a new technology, recent advances in machine capabilities and declining costs have accelerated its integration into military supply chains, operational environments and industrial production. As a dual-use, cyber-physical manufacturing technology, additive manufacturing offers strategic advantages, but it also raises proliferation and diversion risks that warrant closer scrutiny by policymakers and the arms control community.

This primer provides a short overview of what additive manufacturing is and how it works, explains what types of military equipment it can help produce, who is involved, why it is sought and what its limitations are. It also examines the risks emerging from the use of this technology in manufacturing and provides an overview of existing arms control and transfer control measures, as well as their gaps and limitations. The primer concludes by outlining several considerations for policymakers on how to overcome existing challenges.

Citation: Grand-Clément, Sarah and Sunniva Selmer Reinertsen, Additive Manufacturing of Conventional Military Equipment: Implications for Arms Control and Security. A Primer (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/ERC/06.

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Technological Developments in Small Arms: Implications for International Arms Control Instruments

Asa Cusack — Thu, 30 Apr 2026 07:57:46 +0000

Technologies used to design, manufacture and control small arms and light weapons (SALW) have evolved significantly since the adoption of the 2001 United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All its Aspects (PoA) and the 2005 International Instrument to Enable States to Identify and Trace, in a Timely and Reliable Manner, Illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons (ITI).

In response, the Fourth Review Conference of the PoA in 2024 established an Open-Ended Technical Expert Group (OETEG). This report aims to introduce national representatives to the four primary issues under the OETEG’s mandate:

Polymer frames and receivers
Modular SALW
3D printing of SALW
Technology to counter diversion of SALW

The report summarizes the current state of knowledge, building on a series of webinars convened between October 2025 and February 2026, background research, and interviews with experts from international organizations, governments, academia, civil society and industry.

It explains each of the four issues, detailing the challenges they pose, outlining approaches to addressing them and highlighting key considerations for the OETEG.

Citation: Ruben Nicolin, Paula Soumaya Domit, Sunniva Selmer Reinertsen and Matilde Vecchioni. Technological Developments in Small Arms: Implications for International Arms Control Instruments. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/ASC/05

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Persistent Insecurity Challenges Impacting Defection Pathways out of Armed and Criminal Groups in Colombia

Asa Cusack — Mon, 27 Apr 2026 11:29:49 +0000

The report analyzes the security challenges, as well as the interconnected legal and socioeconomic obstacles, faced by ex-members of dissident and criminal groups participating in the Differential Assistance Process who have defected and are working to transition to civilian life and examines how these challenges impact their progress. The findings presented draw on multiple sources, including extensive desk research, primary data collected through two rounds of surveys conducted with participants in the Differential Assistance process, as well as observations made by the research team during fieldwork. The first round of surveys took place in 2022 and included 50 participants across three locations: Bogotá, Medellín and Cali. The second round was carried out in 2025 with 102 participants in total in Bogotá, Medellín, Cali and Cundinamarca.

The results highlight that differential assistance participants continue to face direct security threats, placing their physical safety at risk while simultaneously exacerbating economic vulnerability. Additionally, participants have a lack of certainty about their legal benefits and obligations, which can heighten the risk of being detected by armed and criminal groups. These overlapping challenges must be taken seriously since they complicate transitions to civilian life and increase the risk of disengagement from the Differential Assistance process. The report also offers suggestions to strengthen protection and support for participants and contribute to the dismantling of criminal structures and sustainable reintegration outcomes more broadly.

Citation: Sofia Rivas, Angela Olaya, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Siobhan O’Neil, Angela Gomez, “Persistent Insecurity Challenges Impacting Defection Pathways Out of Armed and Criminal Groups in Colombia”, Findings Report 50, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/03

El informe analiza los desafíos de seguridad, así como los obstáculos legales y socioeconómicos, que enfrentan exmiembros de grupos disidentes y criminales que participan en el proceso de Atención Diferencial en Colombia, y examina cómo estos desafíos impactan su progreso.

Los hallazgos se basan en múltiples fuentes, incluyendo una revisión exhaustiva de la literatura, datos recolectados a través de dos rondas de encuestas llevadas a cabo con participantes del proceso de Atención Diferencial de la ARN, así como en las observaciones del equipo MEAC derivadas de su interacción con esta población durante el trabajo de campo.

La primera ronda de encuestas ocurrió en 2022 e incluyó a 50 participantes en tres ubicaciones: Bogotá, Medellín y Cali. La segunda ronda se llevó a cabo en 2025 con un total de 102 participantes en Bogotá, Medellín, Cali y Cundinamarca.

Los resultados destacan que los y las participantes del proceso de Atención Diferencial continúan enfrentando amenazas de seguridad, lo que pone en riesgo su integridad física y, al mismo tiempo, exacerba su vulnerabilidad económica.

Además, los y las participantes muchas veces desconocen sus beneficios y obligaciones legales dentro del proceso, lo que puede aumentar el riesgo de ser identificados por grupos armados y criminales.

Estos desafíos interrelacionados deben tomarse en serio, ya que impactan su tránsito a la vida civil y aumentan el riesgo de que los y las participantes se desvinculen del proceso de Atención Diferencial.

El informe también ofrece sugerencias para fortalecer la protección y el apoyo que se le ofrece a estos participantes y contribuir al desmantelamiento de estructuras criminales y a mejores resultados en materia de reintegración.

Citation: Sofia Rivas, Angela Olaya, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Siobhan O’Neil, Angela Gómez, “Desafíos de Seguridad que Impactan la Salida de Individuos de Grupos Armados y Criminales en Colombia”, Findings Report 50, UNIDIR, Ginebra, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/03.

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Nuclear Risk Reduction: An Illustrative Compendium

Asa Cusack — Wed, 22 Apr 2026 09:49:37 +0000

Nuclear risk reduction discussions are often complicated by differing views on its scope and purpose. To help address this challenge, this compendium serves as an accessible global reference point for nuclear risk reduction discussions.

It has three core objectives:

First, it maps the current landscape of official nuclear risk reduction policy proposals.
Second, it organizes proposed risk reduction measures into a framework of eight overarching categories, enabling the range of measures to be considered within a single, coherent resource.
And third, it analyses these measures by drawing out the similarities, differences and nuances across the various policy proposals.

The compendium concludes with a list of the official risk reduction documents referenced throughout the publication, totalling over 100 documents. This list provides easy access to over a decade of official proposals by States in their own words.

Citation: Sarah Ruth Opatowski, Nuclear Risk Reduction: An Illustrative Compendium (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/26/NRR/01.

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Vientiane Calling: Strengthening the Inclusive Implementation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Mon, 20 Apr 2026 10:12:49 +0000

The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM), a key humanitarian disarmament treaty, is also an important example of integrating age and gender considerations, as well as other aspects that reflect the diversity of populations, in treaty implementation.

In the latest action plan, known as the Lausanne Action Plan (2021–2026), CCM States Parties committed to a number of practical steps that integrate gender perspectives and the diverse needs and experiences of people in affected communities into all aspects of mine action and programming.

As the Lausanne Action Plan enters its final year of implementation, it is crucial to assess its impact and reflect on the way forward. This report contributes to that effort by offering an overview of the implementation of action points of the Lausanne Action Plan covering gender, diversity, and inclusion. Drawing on official reporting, as well as an online questionnaire and consultations with States Parties, this report outlines instances of progress achieved regarding the integration of gender considerations and diversity perspectives in treaty implementation, as well as challenges and areas for improvement that could be addressed in the upcoming Vientiane Capital Action Plan.

Citation: Renata Hessmann Dalaqua, Aleksandra Lankamer, and Hana Salama. 2026. Vientiane Calling: Strengthening the Inclusive Implementation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions. UNIDIR, Geneva.

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Weapons and Ammunition Management Country Insight: Republic of The Gambia

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Wed, 08 Apr 2026 14:57:05 +0000

UNIDIR defines weapons and ammunition management (WAM) in a comprehensive manner covering the oversight, accountability and governance of conventional arms and ammunition throughout their management cycle. This includes the establishment of relevant national frameworks, processes and practices for the safe and secure production and acquisition of materiel, stockpiling, transfers, end-use control, tracing and disposal. This holistic approach is essential in ensuring that efforts to better regulate arms and ammunition are undertaken in alignment with relevant humanitarian, peacebuilding, security sector governance, rule of law, counter-terrorism and armed violence reduction processes, and not in isolation.

This country insight presents the main findings of the WAM baseline assessment conducted in October 2024 by the Government of the Republic of The Gambia, through the NatCom SALW, in cooperation with UNIDIR and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The publication draws from the comprehensive baseline assessment report shared by UNIDIR in cooperation with ECOWAS to the Government of The Gambia. It includes information on existing institutional and operational capacities, policies and procedures, as well as challenges faced by national authorities at strategic and operational levels, and options for further strengthening the national framework governing through-life management of weapons and ammunition in The Gambia.

UNIDIR encourages States, regional and sub-regional organisations, and relevant international partners to consult this WAM country insight, as well as its country insight series and annual updates. These resources can serve as a basis for strengthening WAM policies and practices at different levels and for planning, implementing and evaluating future projects related to WAM and areas in The Gambia, as well as other African States respectively.

Citation: Theò Bajon and Hardy Giezendanner. “Weapons and Ammunition Management Country Insight: Republic of The Gambia”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/WAM/04.

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Innovations Dialogue 2025: Neurotechnologies and their Implications for International Peace and Security

Maria Belen Lopez Conte — Thu, 02 Apr 2026 11:00:37 +0000

This conference report provides a summary of the key themes, issues and takeaways from UNIDIR’s Innovations Dialogue 2025 on neurotechnologies and their implications for international peace and security.

Neurotechnologies, while still emerging, are advancing rapidly and gaining prominence. These technologies have a clear dual-use nature: in addition to civilian applications, military research laboratories are actively exploring ways to enhance soldiers’ cognitive, sensory and physical capabilities, including through direct brain-machine interfaces with uncrewed systems. The potential military use of neurotechnologies raises significant security concerns and could affect the conduct of warfare, presenting complex disarmament, ethical and legal challenges.

The Innovations Dialogue 2025, building on existing international efforts, sought to provide a neutral space to address this topic through the lens of arms control, disarmament and international security. It did so by examining the current state of neurotechnologies, considering associated risks and opportunities for international peace and security, and exploring pathways towards responsible governance.

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International Cyber Operations: Doctrines and Capabilities of the Republic of Korea

Maria Belen Lopez Conte — Mon, 30 Mar 2026 11:24:19 +0000

The 2019 National Cybersecurity Strategy of the Republic of Korea acknowledged the escalating nature of cyber threats, emphasizing the need to fortify defences and enhance resilience. However, the 2024 strategy underscored the criticality of offensive cyber power, suggesting a significant shift in emphasis. This transition toward a more offensive posture, while necessary in the face of evolving threats, raises crucial questions regarding the nature and scope of the Republic of Korea’s offensive cyber capabilities and the doctrines guiding their use.

By examining official documents, analyzing relevant laws and regulations, and investigating the structure of government agencies, this paper sheds light on the Republic of Korea’s potential to conduct international cyber operations and the principles likely to govern their deployment.

Citation: So Jeong Kim, International Cyber Operations: Doctrines and Capabilities of the Republic of Korea (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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The Nairobi Protocol on Small Arms and Light Weapons at 20: A Regional Implementation Scorecard

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Wed, 25 Mar 2026 05:30:00 +0000

Twenty years after its entry into force, the Nairobi Protocol for the Prevention, Control and Reduction of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) remains the central regional framework guiding state parties in preventing, combating and eradicating the illicit proliferation and misuse of SALW across the Great Lakes Region, the Horn of Africa and Bordering States. This report constitutes the first comprehensive region-wide review of its implementation, conducted under a joint project by UNIDIR and the Regional Centre of Small Arms (RESCA), funded by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office.

Drawing on data from 13 RECSA Member States, the study establishes 2005 and 2025 baselines across 16 thematic areas. The review finds clear progress in the implementation of the Nairobi Protocol. Member States have reinforced national legislation and established transfer control systems, while improving stockpile management, weapons marking and record-keeping. Controls over civilian possession and commercial actors have also expanded, alongside growing institutional and enforcement capacity. Yet implementation remains uneven, with persistent weaknesses in legislation, cross-border cooperation, civilian licensing, border control, tracing, record-keeping, and the collection and destruction of illicit and surplus SALW.

The report recommends that RECSA Member States undertake a review of the Nairobi Protocol to strengthen existing provisions, align it with global and African frameworks, and address new and emerging threats. By identifying effective practices and common challenges, this scorecard provides an analytical foundation for amending the Nairobi Protocol, revising its Best Practice Guidelines and developing a five-year action plan, which will in turn equip States with updated guidance for effective SALW control.

Citation: Ruben Nicolin, Lillian Wamuyu, Benjamin Agage and Paul Holtom. The Nairobi Protocol on Small Arms and Light Weapons at 20: A Regional Implementation Scorecard. Geneva, Nairobi: UNIDIR, RECSA, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/ASC/03.

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Arms Trade Treaty Reporting on Small Arms Transfers: What Have We Learned?

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Thu, 12 Mar 2026 08:12:05 +0000

Since 2015, States Parties to the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT) have been required to report annually on imports and exports, including international transfers of small arms and light weapons (SALW), as part of the Treaty’s transparency framework.

After a decade of reporting under the ATT, how much transparency exists regarding transfers of SALW? What has changed in practice? This policy brief examines reporting trends for the period 2015–2024 and assesses what the available data reveal about how ATT States Parties implement the Treaty’s obligations.

It highlights both the progress and the worrying trends in State reporting on international transfers of SALW and explores how additional national reporting practices, such as information on brokering authorisations and licence denials, could further strengthen understanding of the global authorised SALW trade. The analysis aims to provide food for thought ahead of the March 2026 meetings of the ATT Working Group on Transparency and Reporting.

Citation: Lara Maria Guedes Gonçalves Costa and Paul Holtom. Arms Trade Treaty Reporting on Small Arms Transfers: What Have We Learned? Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026

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Reframing Child Participation in Today’s Conflict-Affected Contexts

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Wed, 11 Mar 2026 08:34:04 +0000

This Managing Exits from Armed Conflict Research into Action report examines why children’s participation in peacebuilding so often fails to translate rights commitments into meaningful political influence. Dr Sean Molloy finds that children’s participation is constrained less by their capacity or willingness to engage, but more by adult gatekeeping, safeguarding regimes, institutional fragility and political volatility. The findings – drawn from original research with practitioners – offer crucial insights into the organisational and political work required to ensure children’s influence in post-conflict contexts.

Citation: Sean Molloy, ”Reframing Child Participation in Today’s Conflict-Affected Contexts”, MEAC Research into Action, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/02.

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Cyber Stability Conference 2025: Crisis Averted: Cyber Resilience in Action

Maria Belen Lopez Conte — Thu, 19 Feb 2026 12:24:37 +0000

This report presents an expanded overview of key discussions emerging from UNIDIR’s Cyber Stability Conference 2025, which officially launched the inaugural Geneva Cyber Week. Bringing together experts from governments, industry, civil society and academia, the conference used a scenario-based exercise set in the fictional region of “Dystopia” to illustrate how information and communication technology incidents can quickly escalate into widespread and systemic disruptions.

Through a series of dynamic, multi-stakeholder panel discussions, the event examined the ripple effects such incidents can have across borders and sectors, highlighting the growing interdependence of digital ecosystems.

This report also offers clear, action-oriented guidance for relevant stakeholders seeking to enhance resilience, cooperation, and preparedness.

Citation: UNIDIR Security and Technology Programme, 2025 Cyber Stability Conference, Crisis Averted: Cyber Resilience in Action (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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Securing Cyberspace for Peace: Insights into Cyberthreats and International Security in 2025

Maria Belen Lopez Conte — Mon, 09 Feb 2026 13:40:13 +0000

This UNIDIR report examines the key developments in the global cyber threat landscape in 2025, focusing on their implications for international peace and security. Informed by public reporting, expert insights and the outcomes of UNIDIR’s Cyber Stability Conference 2024, the report provides a structured overview of evolving threats, changing threat actor dynamics and the disruptive influence of emerging technologies.

Organized into three interrelated sections, the report explores:

Evolving cyberthreats: From attacks on critical infrastructure and supply chains to the rise of ransomware, disinformation and cybercrime, this section analyses how the growing scale and complexity of cyberattacks pose systemic risks to national, regional and global stability. It explains how these threats operate and includes case-based illustrations of their real-world impacts on peace and security.
Cyberthreat actors: Examining the increasingly blurred lines between State and non-State actors in cyberspace. This section explores the motivations and tactics of various actors, including States, cybercriminals, hacktivists and private entities, and highlights how overlapping behaviours may complicate response.
Emerging technologies: Focusing on artificial intelligence and quantum computing, this section outlines how technological advancements are reshaping offensive and defensive cyber operations. The report considers how these technologies offer new opportunities for cybersecurity while also creating new vulnerabilities and strategic risks for the international community.

Throughout, the report provides explanatory textboxes designed to help diplomats and policymakers better understand how cyberattacks work at a technical level, as well as case studies that concretely demonstrate the international security impacts of malicious cyber activity. By demystifying complex technical concepts and contemporary trends, the report hopes to support national and international deliberations to strengthen resilience, reduce risks and advance an open, secure, stable, accessible and peaceful cyberspace for all.

Citation: UNIDIR Security and Technology Programme, Securing Cyberspace for Peace: Insights into Cyberthreats and International Security in 2025 (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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Integrating the Prevention of Violent Extremism and Illicit Weapons Proliferation in West Africa: A Way Forward

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Mon, 09 Feb 2026 08:58:27 +0000

In recent years, conflicts in West Africa have intensified, driven by the rise of armed groups, particularly violent extremist groups. The Sahel region has become an epicentre of violent extremism, with groups expanding to the littoral States of the Gulf of Guinea. The spread of violent extremism is compounded by—and exacerbates—the illicit proliferation of conventional weapons and ammunition. Insufficiently considered thus far, violent extremism and the demand for weapons share root causes. Attending to such links offers an effective avenue to address both these common root causes and the supply of weapons, thereby preventing armed violence more sustainably.

Against this background, UNIDIR, the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs and the United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Africa organized in 2023 a regional seminar on preventing violent extremism (PVE) and weapons and ammunition management (WAM) in West Africa. The seminar called for adopting an integrated approach to both issues and recommended a study to support this paradigm shift.

This empirical study examines an integrated approach to address the illicit supply of weapons and the root causes of violence by analyzing intersections between PVE and WAM across policy frameworks, institutions and operational practices. It identifies existing good examples of integrating PVE and WAM and explores promising, context-specific opportunities in the region. The study derives practical steps to support States, regional and continental organizations, UN entities and other stakeholders in operationalizing such an integrated approach in West Africa and beyond.

Citation: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Africa, and Peace and Human Rights Division of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, “Integrating the Prevention of Violent Extremism and Illicit Weapons Proliferation in West Africa: A Way Forward”, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/PACAV/02

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Outer Space Security Conference 2025 Report

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Mon, 09 Feb 2026 08:57:53 +0000

UNIDIR’s Outer Space Security Conference 2025, a two-day flagship event held on 9–10 September at the Palais des Nations in Geneva, convened participants from the diplomatic community, along with experts from the military, industry, civil society and academia to explore a range of pressing issues in outer space security. This report summarizes key discussions and... Read more

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UNIDIR Roundup and Outlook 2026

Asa Cusack — Wed, 04 Feb 2026 10:52:47 +0000

The UNIDIR Roundup and Outlook 2026 reviews the major developments in international security over the past year, detailing how the Institute has worked with partners all across the globe to make a real impact on policy, practice and everyday lives despite mounting geopolitical tensions.

Following on from the 80th anniversary not only of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki but also of the founding of the United Nations, it offers a reminder that collective action can and should continue to make a major, positive difference, just as it has for the past eight decades.

It also lays out UNIDIR’s priorities for 2026 and invites partners to work with us to address security challenges both emerging and longstanding, open up vital spaces for dialogue, shape innovative policy solutions – and work towards a more secure world for all.

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Headway and Hurdles: The Reincorporation Progress and Challenges Faced by FARC-EP Ex-combatants

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Tue, 03 Feb 2026 08:58:18 +0000

The report analyzes the experiences, progress and major challenges faced by former FARC-EP members in their ongoing reincorporation process. The findings draw on 319 surveys conducted between July and October 2025 with active reincorporation participants in four locations: two rural territorial training and reincorporation spaces —Tierra Grata (Cesar department) and Mariana Páez (Meta department)—and the cities of Bogotá and Medellín.

The results highlight both areas where participants’ priorities align with the support they receive and persistent gaps that may undermine the overall effectiveness of reincorporation efforts. They also show that participants continue to face significant obstacles—including economic hardship and insecurity—that affect their transition to civilian life and, in some cases, may increase the risk of returning to illicit activities, thereby jeopardizing peacebuilding efforts. The report offers concrete recommendations to strengthen support within the reincorporation process and to inform future disarmament, demobilization and reintegration-style initiatives, as well as broader peacebuilding strategies in Colombia and beyond.

Citation: Angela Olaya, Kyle Johnson, Sofia Rivas, Jente Althuis, Moritz Hoene, Siobhan O’Neil, “Headway and Hurdles: The Reincorporation Progress and Challenges Faced by FARC-EP Ex-combatants”, Findings Report 49, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/01

El informe analiza las experiencias, los avances y los principales desafíos que enfrentan los exintegrantes de las FARC-EP en su proceso de reincorporación. Los hallazgos se basan en 319 encuestas realizadas entre julio y octubre de 2025 a participantes activos en cuatro ubicaciones: dos Espacios Territoriales de Capacitación y Reincorporación —Tierra Grata (departamento del Cesar) y Mariana Páez (departamento del Meta)— así como las ciudades de Bogotá y Medellín.

Los hallazgos identifican tanto áreas en las que las prioridades de las y los participantes se alinean con el apoyo recibido como brechas persistentes que podrían socavar la eficacia general del proceso de reincorporación. También evidencian que las y los participantes continúan enfrentando desafíos importantes —como dificultades económicas e inseguridad— que afectan su tránsito a la vida civil y que, en algunos casos, pueden aumentar el riesgo de regresar a actividades ilícitas. El informe presenta recomendaciones concretas para fortalecer el acompañamiento ofrecido dentro del proceso de reincorporación, para orientar futuras iniciativas de desarme, desmovilización y reintegración, así como estrategias más amplias de construcción de paz en Colombia y más allá.

Citation: Angela Olaya, Kyle Johnson, Sofia Rivas, Jente Althuis, Moritz Hoene, Siobhan O’Neil, “Avances y Desafíos en la Reincorporación de Exintegrantes de las FARC-EP”, Findings Report 49, UNIDIR, Ginebra, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/01

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The Global Prism of Military AI Governance: Reflections from the 2025 Regional Consultations on Responsible AI in the Military Domain

Maria Belen Lopez Conte — Mon, 02 Feb 2026 18:21:51 +0000

The Governments of Spain, the Republic of Korea, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands – in partnership with France, Kenya and Pakistan – conducted a series of five regional consultations on artificial intelligence (AI) in the military domain. These consultations served as key preparatory steps leading up to the third Summit on Responsible Artificial Intelligence in the Military Domain (REAIM), held in A Coruña, Spain, on 4–5 February 2026.

Facilitated by UNIDIR, the consultations sought to build on the 2024 REAIM Regional Consultations and the 2023 and 2024 Summits, in addition to capturing evolution in national views and policies on responsible AI in the military domain, regional priorities and multi-stakeholder engagement over the year.

This report seeks to capture the main takeaways from the five regional consultations, summarizing participants’ views and a selection of UNIDIR’s observations. Specifically, these observations are centred around a number of common threads that ran through all of the regional consultations (even though minor adjustments were made for each regional event to factor in its respective local context and realities):

National policies and practices
Looking back (post-REAIM 2023 and 2024 reflections)
Looking ahead (reflections for the 2026 REAIM Summit)

In addition, this report provides a comprehensive overview of some of the takeaways from the discussions held with the multi-stakeholder community. One key objective of the consultations, in acknowledgment of the importance of multi-stakeholder engagement, is to take stock of the views of regional representatives from industry, civil society, academia and research institutes, as well as regional and international organizations.

This report also looks into the operationalization of responsible AI principles across the life cycle of AI-enabled military capabilities through the lenses of assurances, incident response, crisis management and risk reduction.

The report then lays out States’ reflections on the REAIM journey three years on from the inaugural summit. It concludes by identifying substantive areas of priority that States wish to see further pursued, both within REAIM and beyond, before presenting a series of concrete recommendations for the road ahead.

Citation: Yasmin Afina, The Global Prism of Military AI Governance: Reflections from the 2025 Regional Consultations on Responsible AI in the Military Domain (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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The Use of Uncrewed Aerial Systems by Non-State Armed Groups: Exploring Trends in Myanmar

Nicole Kwan Kiu Leung — Wed, 21 Jan 2026 08:35:35 +0000

The use of uncrewed aerial systems (UASs) by non-State armed groups (NSAGs) has become a defining feature of Myanmar’s conflict landscape. Since the February 2021 military coup, Myanmar has recorded one of the highest global rates of UAS use by NSAGs, with these systems playing an increasingly significant role in shaping conflict dynamics across the country.

This report analyses key trends in the use of UASs by NSAGs in Myanmar, with a particular focus on post-coup developments. It aims to provide researchers, policymakers and practitioners with an overview of how these systems have been adopted and employed by various groups across the country, and of their implications for evolving conflict dynamics. It examines the types of NSAGs deploying UASs, the geographical distribution of incidents, as well as the primary targets and impacts of their operations. The report also explores trends in the craft-production, modification and weaponization of these systems, identifying the key factors enabling the rapid adoption and diffusion of UAS capabilities among NSAGs, including the widespread availability of commercial components, access to open-source knowledge, decentralized knowledge-sharing networks and improvised production practices.

By examining the Myanmar case, the report provides insights into the expanding role of uncrewed systems in contemporary armed conflicts. It highlights the challenges that the growing development and use of these systems may pose for existing arms control frameworks, as well as for international security and stability more broadly.

Citation: Joshua Angelo Estrada Bata and Bárbara Morais Figueiredo, “The use of uncrewed aerial systems by non-State armed groups: Exploring trends in Myanmar”. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CAAP/26/ERC/01

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Strengthening National CSIRT Cooperation: From Domestic Setups to International Networks

Asa Cusack — Mon, 29 Dec 2025 09:00:42 +0000

This policy brief examines how the design and functioning of national computer security incident response teams (CSIRTs) shape their ability to cooperate domestically and internationally.

Drawing on desk research and interviews with national CSIRTs and international and regional networks, the brief analyses how domestic institutional arrangements shape CSIRTs’ capacity to engage in effective information exchange and collaboration at the bilateral, regional and global levels.

The brief identifies key challenges and highlights good practices to enhance information exchange and coordination, as well as offering practical recommendations to support States in strengthening national CSIRTs and advancing responsible State behaviour in cyberspace.

Citation: Samuele Dominioni and Helena Hinkel, Strengthening National CSIRT Cooperation: From Domestic Setups to International Networks (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026)

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Rebuilding Lives: Understanding Economic Well-being After Exiting an Armed Group in the North East of Nigeria

Clara Zuccarino — Mon, 15 Dec 2025 10:58:31 +0000

This report examines one of the most critical aspects of reintegration after armed group involvement – establishing livelihoods and sources of income to replace the support often previously provided by armed groups. It compares the economic reintegration of former Boko Haram associates, and those exiting community security groups like the Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF), with community members who were never affiliated with any armed actor.

The report assesses how former associates of Boko Haram and former affiliates of community security actors like the CJTF and Yan Gora are doing economically compared to their non- affiliated peers, to inform reintegration support in the region. The findings are based on three-part survey conducted in the North East of Nigeria between 2021-2023 and highlight the reintegration journeys of individuals who left Boko Haram prior to the “mass exits” following the death of leader Abubakar Shekau in May 2021. A comparative section incorporates more recent data from a panel survey conducted in 2024-2025, showing how earlier findings remain relevant for those who exited during or after the mass exits.

Citation: Jente Althuis, Kato Van Broeckhoven, Francesca Batault, Mohammed Bukar and Fatima Yetcha Ajimi Badu, “Rebuilding Lives: Understanding Economic Well-being After Exiting an Armed Group in the North East of Nigeria,” Findings Report 48, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2025, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/25/12.

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Promoting Equality and Innovation in the Nuclear Field: Workshop Report

Mireia Mas Vivancos — Fri, 05 Dec 2025 08:44:33 +0000

This report summarizes the workshop held by UNIDIR, the Vienna Center for Disarmament and Non-Proliferation (VCDNP) and the Permanent Mission of Norway in Vienna on 8 October 2025.

The workshop focused on promoting equality and innovation in international cooperation and capacity building in the nuclear field. It featured expert presentations and open discussions covering a range of approaches to training and technical cooperation.

Citation: UNIDIR and VCDNP, “Promoting equality and innovation in the nuclear field: Workshop report”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2025.

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Toolkit: Addressing Weapons-Related Risks in Women, Peace and Security National Action Plans

Clara Zuccarino — Mon, 01 Dec 2025 08:49:05 +0000

Women, Peace and Security (WPS) National Action Plans (NAPs) are key strategic, policy – and often also practical – tools for implementing the WPS Agenda. The plans outline priorities, coordinate and sequence activities, and thereby provide a concrete road map for agreed measures to advance the WPS Agenda.

This toolkit offers practical explanations of how the WPS and arms control/disarmament policy and programming fields are mutually reinforcing, to help demystify these fields and facilitate their integration. It includes dozens of examples and ideas to integrate arms control and disarmament measures into WPS NAPs. Although the examples and suggestions are non-exhaustive, they can serve as references to inspire action on WPS projects and programmes.

Citation: Myrttinen, Henri, Anastaesia Mondesir, and Mariana Terreros Lozano. Toolkit: Addressing Weapons-Related Risks in Women, Peace, and Security National Action Plans. Geneva, Switzerland: UNIDIR, 2025.

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Closing Gaps: Strengthening the Women, Peace and Security Agenda through Arms Control and Disarmament

Clara Zuccarino — Mon, 01 Dec 2025 08:48:49 +0000

This report takes stock of how weapons-related issues — including small arms and light weapons, landmines, weapons of mass destruction, emerging technologies, and references to relevant legal frameworks, such as the Arms Trade Treaty — have been integrated into the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) Agenda at the national level.

It analyses 197 National Action Plans on WPS, adopted by 106 States and territories between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2024. In doing so, it demonstrates the relevance of arms control and disarmament to the four pillars of the WPS Agenda: prevention of all forms of violence against women and girls and violations of their rights, the protection of women and girls and of their rights, full and meaningful participation of women in all areas of peace and security, as well as post-conflict and post-crisis relief and recovery.

Citation: Myrttinen, Henri, Anastaesia Mondesir, and Mariana Terreros Lozano. Closing Gaps: Strengthening the Women, Peace and Security Agenda through Arms Control and Disarmament. Geneva, Switzerland: UNIDIR, 2025.

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