Both quantum technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) are advancing rapidly, with an increasingly symbiotic relationship between these two transformative fields. AI’s role is becoming more evident in quantum research and development, facilitating experimentation and system optimisation. In turn, progress in quantum technologies is also expected to enhance future AI capabilities through improved computational performance.

Alongside potential opportunities, this convergence could introduce new complexities and challenges that extend beyond technical domains and into the realm of international security. For instance, quantum-AI systems could generate challenges that compound existing concerns surrounding the military use of AI, such as heightened unpredictability, opaque decision-making, and structural difficulties related to accountability and legal compliance.

While relevant military applications of the quantum-AI convergence remain largely conceptual or in early development, examining this emerging security dimension provides an opportunity to proactively identify potential risks and inform early policy responses. Building on discussions from UNIDIR’s webinar series on quantum-AI convergence, this primer provides a technological overview of the quantum-AI convergence, assesses emerging and future defence use cases, and examines potential international security implications.

Citation: Wenting He. Entangled Frontiers: Quantum-AI Convergence in Defence and International Security. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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This publication details research findings derived from following the reintegration journeys of hundreds of Iraqis who returned from Al-Hol Camp in Syria and spent time in Al Amal Rehabilitation Centre in Iraq, with particular attention to their post-conflict experiences and the perceptions of the communities that receive them.

Analysis of this data indicates that although quantitative measures consistently report high self-reported acceptance rates among returnees, qualitative research and community responses raise questions about the utility of relying solely on these types of acceptance metrics without additional community and reintegration-in-practice metrics, and qualitative research. The brief concludes by discussing potential implications for further research, policy and programming, indicating a continued need to understand and address specific acceptance barriers for returnees across Iraq.

Citation: Jente Althuis, Tobias Sauer, Moritz Hoene, Muqaddas Sammarraie, Noor Alzuber and Siobhan O’Neil. Social Acceptance of Iraqi Returnees from Al-Hol Camp. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/04

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The resulting publication identifies relevant initiatives and good practices developed by Member States and the multistakeholder community and distils key insights, lessons learned, and recommendations on integrating gender perspectives into cybersecurity. It also serves to support Member States and other relevant stakeholders in their efforts to meaningfully integrate gender considerations in national ICT architectures and advance the implementation of the Framework for responsible State behaviour in cyberspace with a gender perspective in mind.

This publcation is structured into four chapters following the four focus areas of the workshops convened:

1. Gendered threats and impacts of ICT: Analyses how the use and misuse of ICT affects individuals and communities differently and illustrates the diversity of gendered impacts.
2. Gender and international law in cyberspace: Compiles examples and existing guidelines in which international law obligations and normative commitments can be interpreted and implemented in ways that reflect the lived experiences of those affected by ICT-related threats.
3. Mainstreaming gender into national cyber policies and practices: Examines gender equality commitments, multistakeholder participation, inclusive workforce development, and gender-responsive institutional mandates and incident-reporting mechanisms guiding national cybersecurity and digital policies and practices.
4. Gender-responsive cyber capacity-building: Explores examples of targeted upskilling initiatives that can contribute to the full, equal, and meaningful participation and leadership of women and other marginalized groups in technology design and development, cybersecurity measures and incident response, in the formulation of policies, and in cybersecurity governance and diplomacy.

The publication concludes with a list of cross-cutting recommendations stemming from the analyses in the chapters and overarching considerations gathered through the research project. In addition, a curated list of practical resources is also included as a toolbox at the end to guide further reading and engagement.

Citation: Allison Pytlak, Dominique Steinbrecher, Jessica Espinosa Azcarraga, Kathleen Scoggin, and Shimona Mohan. Mainstreaming Gender in Cybersecurity: A Compendium of Good Practices. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. doi.org/10.37559/SECTEC/26/CR/06.

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Notably, there are divergent interpretations of “attack” and of whether “digital data” is an object under IHL. This deficiency of clarity, particularly concerning what constitutes permissible or impermissible cyber behaviour in armed conflict, could inhibit legal protections of civilians and civilian objects.

In an effort to facilitate future multilateral discussions on how international law, and in particular IHL, applies to cyber operations, this report highlights two main interpretive approaches found in scholarship and, most importantly, national positions on international law in cyberspace:

• A restrictive interpretation, which limits the notion of “attack” under IHL to cyber operations that cause physical harm and generally excludes digital data as an object.
• An expansive interpretation, which includes operations that result in a “loss of functionality” within the notion of attack and considers essential civilian data as a legally protected object.

Ultimately, the report argues that the incremental convergence of common understanding, while unlikely to ever achieve absolute uniformity, is crucial for establishing clearer international limits on the use of ICTs in armed conflict.

Citation: Giacomo Biggio and Andraz Kastelic. International Humanitarian Law and Cyber Operations: (Consequences of) Divergent National Interpretations of “Attack” and “Data”. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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To help address this gap, this report assesses the perspectives of members of the United Nations Security Council on the value and use of conventional arms control tools for preventing and mitigating conflict and other forms of armed violence. It describes several principal challenges facing the Council as well as promising avenues for Council members and other interested parties to better understand how practical arms control tools can enhance the UN’s mission of conflict prevention, management and resolution. The report includes a number of concrete recommendations and pathways for incoming and serving Security Council members and United Nations entities to strengthen conventional arms control in the Council’s work.

Citation: Bates Gill, Examining the Security Council’s Use of Conventional Arms Control (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/WAM/09.

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Understanding the challenges of returning to agricultural livelihoods is key to designing effective reintegration strategies and mitigating economic and social strain within communities of return, especially amid evolving political and security dynamics in the region.

Citation: Jessica Caus, Dr Jente Althuis, Moritz Hoene, Dr Siobhan O’Neil, Tobias Sauer, Muqadas Samarrai, Noor Alzuber, Ana Cedillo Bernal, “Return to Dry Lands: How Agricultural Decline Impedes Post-Conflict Reintegration in Iraq,” MEAC Research Brief, UNIDIR, 2026.

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This publication examines the current drivers for pursuing nuclear energy in the Middle East and how they may evolve in the near and medium term. In particular, it examines how regional policy discourses and assumptions about security, climate change, energy, nuclear and AI technologies shape interest in nuclear energy and influence decision-making.

Understanding these drivers, together with the political and technical frameworks governing nuclear energy cooperation, is crucial for assessing risks and informing effective risk mitigation and regional cooperation.

The publication closes by examining the potential implications for the Middle East Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone initiative and identifying effective risk-mitigation models and partnership strategies to address proliferation threats and strengthen peaceful cooperation in the Middle East.

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In March 2025, the Republic of Costa Rica, through the Ministry of Public Security and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship, in cooperation with the Organization of American States (OAS) and UNIDIR, carried out a national assessment of WAM. This exercise focused on the current state of WAM in Costa Rica and provided an opportunity to examine the existing national framework, as well as to identify the institutional and operational capacities, processes, procedures and practices related to it. The consultative process gave national authorities the opportunity to identify new approaches, recommendations and options for strengthening the national framework governing the control and management of weapons and ammunition.

This Country Insight presents the main findings of the national assessment on Costa Rica, which included a preparatory phase and a preparatory visit in late 2024, followed by the in-country assessment in March 2025 and a subsequent analysis process. This publication is based on the report prepared and submitted by UNIDIR, in cooperation with the OAS, to the Government of Costa Rica. It is recognized that significant progress has been made by the Costa Rican authorities since the in-country assessment period. Most of the key findings, as well as the options for strengthening the national framework, remain valid.

UNIDIR encourages States, regional and subregional organizations and relevant international partners to consult this Costa Rica WAM country insight, as well as its country insight series and annual updates. These resources can serve as a basis for strengthening WAM policies and practices at different levels and for planning, implementing and evaluating future WAM-related projects in Costa Rica and other countries.

Citation: Adam Baird and Lara Maria Guedes Gonçalves Costa. Weapons and Ammunition Management – Country Insight Series: Republic of Costa Rica. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/WAM/08.

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It highlights the different forms TFGBV may take globally and includes statistics on this emerging issue. TFGBV is a threat to individual and collective safety and has direct and indirect implications for international peace and security, particularly in cyberspace, where online violence transcends borders and can generate transnational security risks.

The factsheet concludes with suggested areas of action for multilateral organizations, national governments, civil society and industry actors that aim to prevent and mitigate the risk of TFGBV.

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Over the course of its mandate, the OEWG adopted three annual progress reports and a final report. These outcomes helped further develop the existing framework and led to the establishment of a new permanent forum: the Global Mechanism on developments in the field of ICTs in the context of international security and advancing responsible State behaviour in the use of ICTs. In addition, the OEWG discussions also generated substantial material on how UN Member States addressed key issues related to ICTs and international security, which were not captured in the agreed reports.

This report provides an analysis of the evolution of the process and a detailed account of those discussions, including major themes and trends, across the main pillars of the framework: threats, rules, norms and principles, international law, confidence-building measures, capacity-building, and regular institutional dialogue.

This publication is made up of eight individual chapters, which can be downloaded and used independently or as a single volume (see Download section above):

• Chapter 1 | Introduction, by Dr Samuele Dominioni and Dr Giacomo Persi Paoli.
  Introduces the report’s focus on the 2021–2025 UN OEWG on ICT security, outlining its background, research questions, chapter structure, and methodology.

• Chapter 2 | Existing and potential threats, by Dr Giacomo Persi Paoli, Aamna Rafiq and Chimdi Igwe.
  Addresses how States have discussed and understood major ICT threats in the context of international security during the 2021–2025 OEWG.

• Chapter 3 | Rules, norms and principles of responsible State behaviour, by Dr Andraz Kastelic.
  Provides an overview of how States have addressed Rules, Norms, and Principles of Responsible State Behaviour in their use of ICTs during the 2021-2025 OEWG.

• Chapter 4 | International law, by Andrea Gronke and Dominique Steinbrecher.
  Analyses States’ discussions on international law and its applicability to the ICT environment during the 2021-2025 OEWG.

• Chapter 5 | Confidence-building measures, by Dr Samuele Dominioni.
  Explores how States have discussed and developed CBMs, including the Global Intergovernmental Points of Contact Directory, during the OEWG 2021-2025.

• Chapter 6 | Capacity-building, by Dr Ekaterina Martynova and Moliehi Makumane.
  Identifies major milestones and themes discussed by States on Capacity Building during the OEWG 2021-2025.

• Chapter 7 | Regular institutional dialogue, by Pavel Mraz and Lenka Filipova.
  Examines how States have negotiated and agreed on the Global Mechanism on developments in the field of ICTs in the context of international security and advancing responsible State behaviour in the use of ICTs during the OEWG 2021-2025.

• Chapter 8 | Cross-sectional analysis and conclusions, by Dr Samuele Dominioni and Dr Giacomo Persi Paoli.
  Conducts a cross-cutting analysis of all the chapters and identifies key factors that characterized States’ negotiations during the OEWG (2021-2025) and provides some concluding reflections.

Citation: Samuele Dominioni and Giacomo Persi Paoli (eds.). Unpacking the United Nations Open-Ended Working Group on ICT in the Context of International Security (2021-2025). Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. doi.org/10.37559/SECTEC/26/CR/05.

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Ahead of the conference’s second edition, a series of three reports – the first of the AISE Markers series – takes stock of the key takeaways from the previous year and provides an initial basis and scaffolding for UNIDIR’s Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2026. By acting as a bridge between editions, the AISE Markers series ensures that each conference is built on solid ground and constitutes a natural evolution of the discussions held in the previous conference.

This third report provides a structured account of where use cases – both governance and technological – stood in 2025. It offers an overview of discussions surrounding the human element in practice, surveys regional perspectives, zooms in on AI for peace operations and humanitarian applications, and then offers cross-cutting observations that may serve as a baseline for the 2026 edition. Accompanying reports will cover the state of governance and technology.

Citation: Yasmin Afina and Jan Hendrik Mannsperger, “AISE Markers Series – Benchmark III: Use Cases, Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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Ahead of the conference’s second edition, a series of three reports – the first of the AISE Markers series – takes stock of the key takeaways from the previous year and provides an initial basis and scaffolding for UNIDIR’s Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2026. By acting as a bridge between editions, the AISE Markers series ensures that each conference is built on solid ground and constitutes a natural evolution of the discussions held in the previous conference.

This second report provides a structured account of where the conversation on technology stood in 2025. It offers an overview of shared understandings – particularly in the areas of dual-use transformation, life cycle management, data and assurances – and identifies areas that may subsequently serve as a baseline for the 2026 edition. Accompanying reports will cover the state of governance and use cases.

Citation: Yasmin Afina and Jan Hendrik Mannsperger, “AISE Markers Series – Benchmark II: Technology, Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

The post Benchmark II: Technology – Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025 first appeared on UNIDIR.

Ahead of the conference’s second edition, a series of three reports – the first of the AISE Markers series – takes stock of the key takeaways from the previous year and provides an initial basis and scaffolding for UNIDIR’s Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2026. By acting as a bridge between editions, the AISE Markers series ensures that each conference is built on solid ground and constitutes a natural evolution of the discussions held in the previous conference.

This first report provides a structured account of where the conversation on governance stood in 2025. It offers an overview of shared understandings and possible areas of tension, and identifies issues that remain unresolved and may subsequently serve as a baseline for the 2026 edition. Accompanying reports will cover the state of technology and use cases.

Citation: Yasmin Afina and Jan Hendrik Mannsperger, “AISE Markers Series – Benchmark I: Governance, Insights from the Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics 2025”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026.

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It offers a comprehensive, neutral and technical resource for States, organized around realistic illustrations of how international humanitarian law (IHL) principles and obligations may be considered in practice.Specifically, the scenarios examine situations of both international and non-international armed conflict across three domains of warfare: air, land and naval. Each scenario includes guiding questions on IHL compliance relevant to the (potential) use of LAWS in that context.

The compendium consists of three volumes:

• Volume I | Introduction and user guide: This volume provides background on discussions surrounding LAWS and IHL, including the current status of multilateral discussions. It also introduces the compendium, its objectives, structure and guidance on how to use the scenarios. 
• Volume II | International armed conflict: This volume includes scenario catalogues grouped by domain (land, naval, air).
• Volume III | Non-international armed conflict: This volume includes scenario catalogues grouped by domain (land, naval, air).

Additionally, the compendium provides a framework for considering operational and legal questions related to the use of LAWS, and can be leveraged for two main purposes:

• At the national level, the compendium may support efforts to carry structured legal analysis, which can contribute to the development and refinement of IHL interpretation, as well as the stress-testing of existing, or the development of, new policies, tactics, rules of engagements, etc.
• At the international level, the compendium can be leveraged for capacity building and confidence building. First, the scenarios provide ready-made constructs to explore legal and operational questions, especially useful for States with limited modelling capabilities. Second, in international discussions, the compendium can serve as a common analytical reference to compare and discuss interpretations of IHL and identify areas of convergence and divergence.

Citation: Giacomo Persi Paoli, Ioana Puscas and Yasmin Afina, Scenario Compendium for the Legal, Operational and Technical Analysis of Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026).

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The report draws on lessons from existing trust fund models, namely the:

• Arms Trade Treaty Voluntary Trust Fund
• United Nations Trust Facility Supporting Cooperation on Arms Regulation
• Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Tsunami, Disaster and Climate Preparedness
• United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Human Trafficking

The aim is to identify key operational and administrative elements and outline three options to inform ongoing discussions among States Parties as they prepare for the First Review Conference of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in late 2026. 

Citation: David C. Atwood and Luiza Delaflora Cassol, “Steps Towards a Voluntary Trust Fund for the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons” (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/26/NDV/01

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This report reviews official State data and information provided under the ATT, the Firearms Protocol and the PoA to assess the utility of UN reporting mechanisms for monitoring SALW flows and identifying risks, gaps and effective practices to counter the illicit SALW trade and reduce its negative impacts. It recommends that the United Nations system and interested stakeholders:

1. Address the data deficit on SALW flows and transfer controls
2. Facilitate the sharing of useful information
3. Promote the use of information to prevent conflict, armed violence and human suffering.

Citation: Hardy Giezendanner, Lara Maria Guedes Gonçalves Costa, Paul Holtom, and Paula Soumaya Domit. Small Arms and Light Weapons Flows and Transfer Controls. Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/WAM/07.

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Citation: Abdolrasool Divsallar, “Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Trends in the Middle East: Report of the Middle East WMD-Free Zone Project (2023–2026)”, (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026), https://doi.org/10.37559/MEWMDFZ/2026/NP-trends-ME.

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This toolkit offers practical explanations of how the WPS and arms control/disarmament policy and programming fields are mutually reinforcing, to help demystify these fields and facilitate their integration. It includes dozens of examples and ideas to integrate arms control and disarmament measures into WPS NAPs. Although the examples and suggestions are non-exhaustive, they can serve as references to inspire action on WPS projects and programmes.

Citation: Myrttinen, Henri, Anastaesia Mondesir, and Mariana Terreros Lozano. Toolkit: Addressing Weapons-Related Risks in Women, Peace, and Security National Action Plans. Geneva, Switzerland: UNIDIR, 2026.

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The findings suggest that awareness of drug use is widespread across conflict-affected communities in the Lake Chad Basin. While the data does not support assumptions of widespread addiction among former Boko Haram associates, the brief highlights concerns regarding drug use among some former and current affiliates of community security actors, and how this may affect reintegration, professionalization and support pathways. It underlines the need to incorporate substance-abuse screening into reintegration processes for former associates, while strengthening referral pathways and improving access to affordable prevention and treatment services for affected communities more broadly.

Citation: Francesca Batault, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Mohammed Bukar and Fatima Yetcha Ajimi Badu, “Understanding the Legacies of Drug Use in Armed Groups in the North East of Nigeria,” MEAC Research Brief, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026.

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While not a new technology, recent advances in machine capabilities and declining costs have accelerated its integration into military supply chains, operational environments and industrial production. As a dual-use, cyber-physical manufacturing technology, additive manufacturing offers strategic advantages, but it also raises proliferation and diversion risks that warrant closer scrutiny by policymakers and the arms control community.

As part of UNIDIR’s Science and Technology Watchtower project, this primer provides a short overview of what additive manufacturing is and how it works, explains what types of military equipment it can help produce, who is involved, why it is sought and what its limitations are. It also examines the risks emerging from the use of this technology in manufacturing and provides an overview of existing arms control and transfer control measures, as well as their gaps and limitations. The primer concludes by outlining several considerations for policymakers on how to overcome existing challenges.

Citation: Grand-Clément, Sarah and Sunniva Selmer Reinertsen, Additive Manufacturing of Conventional Military Equipment: Implications for Arms Control and Security. A Primer (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/CWP/26/ERC/06.

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In response, the Fourth Review Conference of the PoA in 2024 established an Open-Ended Technical Expert Group (OETEG). This report aims to introduce national representatives to the four primary issues under the OETEG’s mandate:

1. Polymer frames and receivers
2. Modular SALW
3. 3D printing of SALW
4. Technology to counter diversion of SALW

The report also summarizes the current state of knowledge, building on a series of webinars convened between October 2025 and February 2026, background research, and interviews with experts from international organizations, governments, academia, civil society and industry.

It explains each of the four issues, detailing the challenges they pose, outlining approaches to addressing them and highlighting key considerations for the OETEG.

The post Technological Developments in Small Arms: Implications for International Arms Control Instruments first appeared on UNIDIR.

The results highlight that differential assistance participants continue to face direct security threats, placing their physical safety at risk while simultaneously exacerbating economic vulnerability. Additionally, participants have a lack of certainty about their legal benefits and obligations, which can heighten the risk of being detected by armed and criminal groups. These overlapping challenges must be taken seriously since they complicate transitions to civilian life and increase the risk of disengagement from the Differential Assistance process. The report also offers suggestions to strengthen protection and support for participants and contribute to the dismantling of criminal structures and sustainable reintegration outcomes more broadly.

Citation: Sofia Rivas, Angela Olaya, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Siobhan O’Neil, Angela Gomez, “Persistent Insecurity Challenges Impacting Defection Pathways Out of Armed and Criminal Groups in Colombia”, Findings Report 50, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/03

El informe analiza los desafíos de seguridad, así como los obstáculos legales y socioeconómicos, que enfrentan exmiembros de grupos disidentes y criminales que participan en el proceso de Atención Diferencial en Colombia, y examina cómo estos desafíos impactan su progreso.

Los hallazgos se basan en múltiples fuentes, incluyendo una revisión exhaustiva de la literatura, datos recolectados a través de dos rondas de encuestas llevadas a cabo con participantes del proceso de Atención Diferencial de la ARN, así como en las observaciones del equipo MEAC derivadas de su interacción con esta población durante el trabajo de campo.

La primera ronda de encuestas ocurrió en 2022 e incluyó a 50 participantes en tres ubicaciones: Bogotá, Medellín y Cali. La segunda ronda se llevó a cabo en 2025 con un total de 102 participantes en Bogotá, Medellín, Cali y Cundinamarca.

Los resultados destacan que los y las participantes del proceso de Atención Diferencial continúan enfrentando amenazas de seguridad, lo que pone en riesgo su integridad física y, al mismo tiempo, exacerba su vulnerabilidad económica.

Además, los y las participantes muchas veces desconocen sus beneficios y obligaciones legales dentro del proceso, lo que puede aumentar el riesgo de ser identificados por grupos armados y criminales.

Estos desafíos interrelacionados deben tomarse en serio, ya que impactan su tránsito a la vida civil y aumentan el riesgo de que los y las participantes se desvinculen del proceso de Atención Diferencial.

El informe también ofrece sugerencias para fortalecer la protección y el apoyo que se le ofrece a estos participantes y contribuir al desmantelamiento de estructuras criminales y a mejores resultados en materia de reintegración.

Citation: Sofia Rivas, Angela Olaya, Moritz Hoene, Jente Althuis, Siobhan O’Neil, Angela Gómez, “Desafíos de Seguridad que Impactan la Salida de Individuos de Grupos Armados y Criminales en Colombia”, Findings Report 50, UNIDIR, Ginebra, 2026, https://doi.org/10.37559/MEAC/26/03.

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It has three core objectives:

• First, it maps the current landscape of official nuclear risk reduction policy proposals.
• Second, it organizes proposed risk reduction measures into a framework of eight overarching categories, enabling the range of measures to be considered within a single, coherent resource.
• And third, it analyses these measures by drawing out the similarities, differences and nuances across the various policy proposals.

The compendium concludes with a list of the official risk reduction documents referenced throughout the publication, totalling over 100 documents. This list provides easy access to over a decade of official proposals by States in their own words.

Citation: Sarah Ruth Opatowski, Nuclear Risk Reduction: An Illustrative Compendium (Geneva: UNIDIR, 2026). https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/26/NRR/01.

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In the latest action plan, known as the Lausanne Action Plan (2021–2026), CCM States Parties committed to a number of practical steps that integrate gender perspectives and the diverse needs and experiences of people in affected communities into all aspects of mine action and programming.

As the Lausanne Action Plan enters its final year of implementation, it is crucial to assess its impact and reflect on the way forward. This report contributes to that effort by offering an overview of the implementation of action points of the Lausanne Action Plan covering gender, diversity, and inclusion. Drawing on official reporting, as well as an online questionnaire and consultations with States Parties, this report outlines instances of progress achieved regarding the integration of gender considerations and diversity perspectives in treaty implementation, as well as challenges and areas for improvement that could be addressed in the upcoming Vientiane Capital Action Plan.

Citation: Renata Hessmann Dalaqua, Aleksandra Lankamer, and Hana Salama. 2026. Vientiane Calling: Strengthening the Inclusive Implementation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions. UNIDIR, Geneva.

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