This report summarizes key discussions and takeaways from the conference’s sessions.

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This report suggests an approach to verifying obligations assumed by States through a mechanism of demonstrative verification, in which a State that wants to demonstrate compliance with its obligations unilaterally implements measures to positively prove its compliance to an international audience. To be effective, these measures must include a detailed verification protocol, rely on open data rather than intelligence estimates, and potentially involve independent observers. This report discusses potential applications of this approach to nuclear arms control and space security.

Citation: Tamara Patton and Pavel Podvig, “Verification Without a Treaty. Demonstrative Verification in Arms Control, Disarmament, and Space Security”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2025. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/25/NDV/01.

The post Verification Without a Treaty first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Chelsea Mai and Ritanshu Lohani.“Space Industry Workshop Report: Industry Perspectives on Addressing Space Security Challenges”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2025. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/25/Space/02.

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The report highlights how AI offers many opportunities in outer space operations which can contribute to more effective threat mitigation strategies, and ultimately to building a more secure and peaceful space environment. AI also presents challenges – technical and regulatory- that the international community must bear in mind, particularly as States work to develop mechanisms for space security.

Citation: Ioana Bratu and Almudena Azcárate Ortega. “Space Security & New Technologies 1 – Visionary Versus Reactionary. The Future of Space Security in the Age of Artificial Intelligence”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2025. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/25/Space/03.

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This report summarizes key discussions and takeaways from the conference’s six panels.

Citation: Ritanshu Lohani and Luiza Delaflora Cassol, “2024 Outer Space Security Conference Report”, Geneva: UNIDIR, 2025. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/25/Space/01.

The post Outer Space Security Conference 2024 Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

There are uncertainties about how to apply the prohibition of the use of force to space, many of which are not exclusive to outer space; rather, the unique nature of space brings these uncertainties to the fore.

In the context of multilateral debates, States have the opportunity to increase clarity on the interpretation of Article 2(4) of the UN Charter in its application to outer space. As the definition of prohibited force can help to clarify regulation of space capabilities and space behaviours and already applies to all States, the prohibition of the use of force can serve as a useful basis for advancing common understandings for Preventing an Arms Race in Outer Space.

Citation: Erin Pobjie & Almudena Azcárate Ortega. “Space Security Legal Primer 1 – Outer Space & Use of Force”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2024. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/24/Space/02.

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To encourage a frank exchange of ideas, the workshop was a closed event for representatives of island nations, convened under the Chatham House Rule where “participants are free to use the information received, but neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speaker(s), nor that of any other participant, may be revealed”.

This report summarises key discussions and takeaways from the roundtable discussions that took place in the workshop.

Citation: Sarah Erickson, Almudena Azcárate Ortega “Space Security and Sustainability: Why Is It Essential for Small Island Nations?”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2024.

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Citation: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (2024). “Introducing Our Space Security Programme”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

The post Introducing Our Space Security Programme first appeared on UNIDIR.

The OEWG was convened under General Assembly resolution 76/231 on Reducing space threats through norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours, and was tasked with “mak[ing] recommendations on possible norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours relating to threats by States to space systems, including, as appropriate, how they would contribute to the negotiation of legally binding instruments, including on the prevention of an arms race in outer space”. The OEWG was tasked with submitting a report to the seventy-eighth session of the General Assembly.

Although the members of the OEWG did not agree on a report, the work that States and other stakeholders carried out throughout the four sessions held in 2022 and 2023 helped advance multilateral space security discussions. Now, as the international community moves forward and considers new initiatives and processes to prevent an arms race in outer space and achieve space security, it is also important to look back at the recent past.

This report therefore looks at the genesis of the OEWG, what its mandate was, and what the outcome of the process was. Moreover, this report highlights some key takeaways for the future, outlining what worked well in the OEWG process and what can be improved as States continue their work to achieve space security.

Citation: Almudena Azcárate Ortega and Sarah Erickson (2024). “OEWG on Reducing Space Threats: Recap Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/24/Space/01.

The post OEWG on Reducing Space Threats: Recap Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Ching Wei Sooi, Vivienne Zhang, Sarah Erickson and Almudena Azcárate Ortega “2023 Outer Space Security Conference Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2023, https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/
Space/07

The post Outer Space Security Conference 2023 Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

However, space security can no longer be achieved by States alone: it will require the cooperation of all stakeholders —international, national and local— to ensure that outer space is kept peaceful and secure. Furthermore, issues on space safety and security should not always be siloed but rather understood as two sides of the same coin: space sustainability.

This report explores the question of how space security, safety and sustainability are connected, both in theory and practice and on the variety of dangers to space sustainability, either in the form of risks to space safety or threats to space security. The report also provides a provisional illustrative mapping of existing national space measures to provide wider insight into the current global space governance landscape and how efforts to ensure space safety, security and sustainability are implemented.

Citation: Sarah Erickson & Almudena Azcárate Ortega. “To Space Security and Beyond: Exploring Space Security, Safety, and Sustainability Governance and Implementation Efforts”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2023. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/Space/06.

The post To Space Security and Beyond: Exploring Space Security, Safety, and Sustainability Governance and Implementation Efforts (Space Dossier 9) first appeared on UNIDIR.

This document aims to serve as a global reference point for terminological issues related to space security. It should be noted that the Lexicon does not intend to establish uniform definitions for all, but rather highlight, when necessary, that different stakeholders may interpret key concepts in differing ways, thus providing clarity and aiding in achieving common understanding on space security.

The Lexicon is now available as a digital tool: A Lexicon for Outer Space Security

Citation: Almudena Azcárate Ortega & Victoria Samson (Eds.) 2023, “A Lexicon for Outer Space Security”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/Space/05.

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As such, policy options to reduce or prevent the weaponization of space through arms control, disarmament and wider governance are increasingly important to ensure the security and sustainability of space operations. To inform policymaking in this area, it is useful to understand the options available for monitoring and verification in space.

To explore the potential for verification for space security further, this report examines some of the tools and technologies of relevance to verification in space and how these tools could be applied to verify and monitor present and future frameworks related to space security.

Citation: Almudena Azcárate Ortega, Laetitia Cesari and James Revill. “Space Dossier 8 – Constant Vigilance? Verification and Monitoring for Space Security”, UNIDIR, Geneva, 2023. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/Space/04

The post Constant Vigilance? Verification and Monitoring for Space Security (Space Dossier 8) first appeared on UNIDIR.

This report summarises diverse perspectives of threats to space systems from the African region to delegates and participants to the OEWG. It will be useful to delegates and participants of the subsequent OEWG sessions, and space security policy and academic experts.

Citation: Sarah Erickson, Laetitia Cesari and Almudena Azcárate Ortega (2023) “African Perspectives for Advancing Space Security through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours Workshop Summary Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/Space/03.

Sponsor Organizations: SWF, UK, Kenya Space Agency

The post African Perspectives for Advancing Space Security Through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours: Workshop Summary Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

The consultation took place in the margins of the Open-Ended Working Group on Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours with aims to enrich the conversation on space security in ongoing UN processes.

In this way, the consultation was able to provide insightful perspectives to the Chair of the Open-Ended Working Group, and to give State observers to the consultation a more diverse understanding of threats to space systems.

Citation: Manon Blancafort, Sarah Erickson and Almudena Azcárate Ortega (2023) “Commercial Actors and Civil Society Consultation Report: How Can Non-Governmental Entities Contribute to Reducing Threats to Outer Space Systems?” UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

The post Commercial Actors and Civil Society Consultation Report: How Can Non-Governmental Entities Contribute to Reducing Threats to Outer Space Systems? first appeared on UNIDIR.

Participants at this event underscored the fact that space is essential for human life and its relevance will only continue to increase as more actors —both States and non-governmental entities like the commercial industry— engage in space activities. In a period of fast paced technological change and growing geostrategic tension, creating a safe, secure and stable space environment is a challenge that the international community must prioritise, or risk devastating consequences for humankind should outer space become a theatre for conflict.  

This document summarises key discussions and takeaways of six panels from the conference. 

Citation: Almudena Azcárate Ortega, Manon Blancafort and Sarah Erickson (2023) “2022 Outer Space Security Conference Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/23/Space/01

The post Outer Space Security Conference 2022 Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Sarah Erickson and Vivienne Zhang (2022) “Advancing Space Security Through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviour? Webinar Summary Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/22/Space02.

The post Advancing Space Security Through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviour? Webinar Summary Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

To address these challenges, some experts in space security have called for more robust norms of behaviour in outer space. This report explores the role of norms as a tool for outer space governance, as well as their challenges and limitations.

Citation: Jessica West and Almudena Azcárate Ortega (2022) “Space Dossier 7 – Norms for Outer Space: A Small Step or a Giant Leap for Policymaking?”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/22/Space/01

The post Space Dossier 7 – Norms for Outer Space: A Small Step or a Giant Leap for Policymaking? first appeared on UNIDIR.

This two-day flagship event provided a unique forum for the diplomatic community — as well as experts with military, industry and academic backgrounds— to jointly consider challenges related to security in outer space and to exchange ideas regarding solutions. 

The discussion over the course of OS21 is summarised in this document, which also identifies key takeaway points.

Sponsor Organizations: Governments of the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China and the French Republic as well as the Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique (with the financial support of the European Union) and the Secure World Foundation

Citation: María Garzón Maceda, Eleanor Krabill and Almudena Azcárate Ortega (2021) “2021 Outer Space Security Conference Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva, https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/21/Space/02

The post Outer Space Security Conference 2021 Report first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Almudena Azcárate Ortega and James Revill (2021) “Space Industry Workshop Report”, UNIDIR, Geneva. https://doi.org/10.37559/WMD/21/Space/01

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Citation: Paul Meyer (2020) “Ballistic Missile Defence and Outer Space Security: A Strategic Interdependence”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

The post Space Dossier File 6: Ballistic Missile Defence and Outer Space Security: A Strategic Interdependence first appeared on UNIDIR.

Citation: Benjamin Silverstein, Daniel Porras and John Borrie (2020) “Alternative Approaches and Indicators for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space”, UNIDIR, Geneva.

The post Alternative Approaches and Indicators for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space first appeared on UNIDIR.

Teaser: Supporting Diplomacy: Clearing the Path for Dialogue

Citation: Space Security Programme (2019) “UNIDIR Space Security Conference 2019”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

The post UNIDIR Space Security Conference 2019 first appeared on UNIDIR.

Teaser: Space Dossier

Citation: Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan (2019) “Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space”, UNIDIR, Geneva, Switzerland.

The post Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space first appeared on UNIDIR.